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Biodegradable Polymers: Synthesis, Characterization and Applications

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A special issue of Polymers (ISSN 2073-4360). This special issue belongs to the section "Biobased and Biodegradable Polymers".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (15 October 2024) | Viewed by 24329

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Kohei Iritani

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Guest Editor

School of Engineering, Tokyo University of Technology, Hachioji, Japan
Interests: organic chemistry; supramolecular chemistry; material chemistry

Prof. Dr. Piotr Dobrzynski

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Guest Editor

Centre of Polymer and Carbon Materials, Polish Academy of Sciences, 34 Marii Curie-Skłodowskiej Str., 41-819 Zabrze, Poland
Interests: biodegradable polymers; ring-opening polymerization; polymeric biomaterials; antibacterial polymers; controlled drug release; tissue engineering; biodegradable implants; biodegradable vascular stents
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Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Biomaterials have attracted intense interest for solving problems such as increase in CO₂ gas emission, exhaustion of petroleum resources, and expansion of microplastics. As bio-based materials, biomass polymers, which are made from plant-based raw materials such as corn and sugarcane, are well known. Although CO₂ gas is emitted by burning biomass polymers, carbon recycling can be achieved through photosynthesis of plant growth. As another significant material, biodegradable polymers, which are decomposed into CO₂ and H₂O in nature by microorganisms, have been widely researched all over the world, with some studies focusing on marine decomposed polymers to solve the problem of micro-plastics in the ocean. For the construction of a sustainable society, it would be necessary to develop technologies for the efficient production of materials from biomass and for the development of materials with a low environmental impact.

The use of biocompatible biodegradable polymers in modern medicine and veterinary medicine is also the next exciting field, including creating bioresorbable implants for surgery, controlled drug release systems, or the use of these types of polymers for tissue engineering. Due to the wide range of applications, it is still relevant to create new biodegradable polymers with a selected chain structure and composition, resulting in obtaining properties closely tailored to the planned application.

Thus, this Special Issue invites researchers to submit original research and review articles on biodegradable polymers. describing their synthesis, processing, the course of degradation, as well as examples of various interesting applications.

Dr. Kohei Iritani
Dr. Piotr Dobrzynski
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

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Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Polymers is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2700 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

carbon cycle
sustainability
biomass
bio-based resins
biodegradable polymers
marine decomposition
microorganism
composite
bioresorbable polymers
temporary surgical implants
controlled drug release
polymer scaffolds

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Published Papers (9 papers)

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Research

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21 pages, 17491 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Fiber Cross-Sectional and Surface Properties on the Degradation of Biobased Polymers

by Simon Schick, Andreas Weinberger, Robert Groten and Gunnar H. Seide

Polymers 2024, 16(21), 3096; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16213096 - 2 Nov 2024

Viewed by 781

Abstract

Biobased polymers such as polylactic acid (PLA) and polybutylene succinate (PBS) break down naturally under certain environmental conditions. The efficiency of degradation can be linked directly to fiber surface properties, which influence polymer accessibility. Here, the degradation of PLA and PBS fibers with six different cross-sections was investigated. The fibers were aged by hydrolysis and UV exposure in an accelerated weathering test, followed by an ISO 20200 laboratory-scale disintegration test with non-aged fibers as controls. The polymers were analyzed by differential scanning calorimetry, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, and gel permeation chromatography, comparing the polymer granulate, virgin fibers, and UV-exposed fibers. It was found that the molecular mass and crystallinity of PBS changed more than PLA during spinning. Several PLA samples were completely degraded, whereas all the PBS samples remained intact. Furthermore, surface openings appeared on the PLA fibers during weathering, suggesting greater sensitivity to UV exposure and hydrolysis than PBS. A clear correlation between the fiber surface area and the degradation rate was observed for all samples, but the correlation was positive for PLA and negative for PBS. The slower degradation of PBS fibers with a larger surface area may reflect the ability of PBS to preserve itself by further crystallization during degradation processes at temperatures higher than the glass transition point. The data clearly show that the analysis of single degradation mechanisms is insufficient to predict the behavior of material under real-world conditions, where different degradation mechanisms may work in parallel or consecutively, and may show interdependencies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biodegradable Polymers: Synthesis, Characterization and Applications)

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19 pages, 10682 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Green Synthesis of Silver Nanoparticles Mediated by Punica granatum Peel Waste: An Effective Additive for Natural Rubber Latex Nanofibers Enhancement

by Talia S. Echegaray-Ugarte, Andrea L. Cespedes-Loayza, Jacqueline L. Cruz-Loayza, Luis A. Huayapa-Yucra, Isemar Cruz, Júlio Cesar de Carvalho and Luis Daniel Goyzueta-Mamani

Polymers 2024, 16(11), 1531; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16111531 - 29 May 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1371

Abstract

Pomegranate waste poses an environmental challenge in Arequipa. Simultaneously, interest in sustainable materials like natural rubber latex (NRL) is growing, with Peruvian communities offering a promising source. This study explores the green synthesis of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) using pomegranate peel extract and their incorporation into NRL nanofibers for enhanced functionalities. An eco-friendly process utilized silver nitrate and pomegranate peel extract as a reducing and capping agent to synthesize AgNPs. The resulting AgNPs and NRL/AgNPs nanofibers were characterized using imaging and spectroscopic techniques such as UV-vis, TGA, FTIR, XRD, Raman, SEM, and DLS. Green-synthesized AgNPs were spherical and crystalline, with an average diameter of 59 nm. They showed activity against K. pneumoniae, E. coli, B. cereus, and S. aureus (IC50: 51.32, 4.87, 27.72, and 69.72 µg/mL, respectively). NRL and NRL/AgNPs nanofibers (300–373 nm diameter) were successfully fabricated. The composite nanofibers exhibited antibacterial activity against K. pneumoniae and B. cereus. This study presents a sustainable approach by utilizing pomegranate waste for AgNP synthesis and NRL sourced from Peruvian communities. Integrating AgNPs into NRL nanofibers produced composites with antimicrobial properties. This work has potential applications in smart textiles, biomedical textiles, and filtration materials where sustainability and antimicrobial functionality are crucial. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biodegradable Polymers: Synthesis, Characterization and Applications)

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14 pages, 1592 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Characterization of Antimicrobial Poly(Lactic Acid)- and Polyurethane-Based Materials Enduring Closed-Loop Recycling with Applications in Space

by Andrew J. D’Ovidio, Brian Knarr, Alexander J. Blanchard, Gregory W. Bennett, William Leiva, Bin Duan and Jorge M. Zuniga

Polymers 2024, 16(5), 626; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16050626 - 25 Feb 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1537

Abstract

Recent studies have shown that astronauts experience altered immune response behavior during spaceflight, resulting in heightened susceptibility to illness. Resources and resupply shuttles will become scarcer with longer duration spaceflight, limiting access to potentially necessary medical treatment and facilities. Thus, there is a need for preventative health countermeasures that can exploit in situ resource utilization technologies during spaceflight, such as additive manufacturing (i.e., 3D printing). The purpose of the current study was to test and validate recyclable antimicrobial materials compatible with additive manufacturing. Antimicrobial poly(lactic acid)- and polyurethane-based materials compatible with 3D printing were assessed for antimicrobial, mechanical, and chemical characteristics before and after one closed-loop recycling cycle. Our results show high biocidal efficacy (>90%) of both poly(lactic acid) and polyurethane materials while retaining efficacy post recycling, except for recycled-state polyurethane which dropped from 98.91% to 0% efficacy post 1-year accelerated aging. Significant differences in tensile and compression characteristics were observed post recycling, although no significant changes to functional chemical groups were found. Proof-of-concept medical devices developed show the potential for the on-demand manufacturing and recyclability of typically single-use medical devices using antimicrobial materials that could serve as preventative health countermeasures for immunocompromised populations, such as astronauts during spaceflight. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biodegradable Polymers: Synthesis, Characterization and Applications)

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24 pages, 4588 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Synthesis of L-Lactide from Lactic Acid and Production of PLA Pellets: Full-Cycle Laboratory-Scale Technology

by Gadir Aliev, Roman Toms, Pavel Melnikov, Alexander Gervald, Leonid Glushchenko, Nikita Sedush and Sergei Chvalun

Polymers 2024, 16(5), 624; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16050624 - 25 Feb 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 5099

Abstract

Lactide is one of the most popular and promising monomers for the synthesis of biocompatible and biodegradable polylactide and its copolymers. The goal of this work was to carry out a full cycle of polylactide production from lactic acid. Process conditions and ratios of reagents were optimized, and the key properties of the synthesized polymers were investigated. The influence of synthesis conditions and the molecular weight of lactic acid oligomers on the yield of lactide was studied. Lactide polymerization was first carried out in a 500 mL flask and then scaled up and carried out in a 2000 mL laboratory reactor setup with a combined extruder. Initially, the lactic acid solution was concentrated to remove free water; then, the oligomerization and synthesis of lactide were carried out in one flask in the presence of various concentrations of tin octoate catalyst at temperatures from 150 to 210 °C. The yield of lactide was 67–69%. The resulting raw lactide was purified by recrystallization in solvents. The yield of lactide after recrystallization in butyl acetate (selected as the optimal solvent for laboratory purification) was 41.4%. Further, the polymerization of lactide was carried out in a reactor unit at a tin octoate catalyst concentration of 500 ppm. Conversion was 95%; Mw = 228 kDa; and PDI = 1.94. The resulting products were studied by differential scanning calorimetry, NMR spectroscopy and gel permeation chromatography. The resulting polylactide in the form of pellets was obtained using an extruder and a pelletizer. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biodegradable Polymers: Synthesis, Characterization and Applications)

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13 pages, 2990 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Solution Blow-Spun Poly (Ethylene Oxide)-Polysulfone Bicomponent Fibers—Characterization of Morphology, Structure, and Properties

by José Ernesto Domínguez-Herrera, Octavio Maldonado-Saavedra, José Roberto Grande-Ramírez, Luis Rolando Guarneros-Nolasco and Javier González-Benito

Polymers 2023, 15(16), 3402; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15163402 - 14 Aug 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1350

Abstract

Solution blow spinning was used to prepare nonwoven bicomponent fibers constituted by poly (ethylene oxide)-Polysulfone (PEO-PSF). As a new material, deep characterization was carried out to have a database to understand final performance regarding its multiple functions as a potential material for biomedical applications. The morphology was studied by field emission scanning electron and transmission electron microscopy and optical profilometry. Structural characterization was carried out by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and thermal degradation by thermogravimetric analysis. Additionally, wettability and mechanical behavior were studied by contact angle measurements and tensile tests, respectively. The bicomponent material was constituted of fibers with a structure mainly described by a core-shell structure, where the PSF phase is located at the center of the fibers, and the PEO phase is mainly located at the outer parts of the fibers, leading to a kind of shell wall. The study of possible interactions between different phases revealed them to be lacking, pointing to the presence of an interface core/shell more than an interphase. The morphology and roughness of the bicomponent material improved its wettability when glycerol was tested. Indeed, its mechanical properties were enhanced due to the PSF core provided as reinforcement material. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biodegradable Polymers: Synthesis, Characterization and Applications)

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11 pages, 2902 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Development of Epoxy and Urethane Thermosetting Resin Using Chlorella sp. as Curing Agent for Materials with Low Environmental Impact

by Kohei Iritani, Akihito Nakanishi, Rinka Nihei, Shiomi Sugitani and Takashi Yamashita

Polymers 2023, 15(13), 2968; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15132968 - 6 Jul 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1783

Abstract

In the current system, the disposal of plastic materials causes serious environmental pollution such as the generation of carbon dioxide and destruction of the ecosystem by micro-plastics. To solve this problem, bioplastics, biomass and biodegradable plastics have been developed. As part of our research, we have developed novel bioplastics called “cell-plastics”, in which a unicellular green algal cell serves as a fundamental resource. The production of the cell-plastics would be expected to reduce environmental impact due to the usage of a natural product. Herein, to overcome the mechanical strength of cell-plastics, we used thermosetting epoxy and urethane resins containing Chlorella sp. as the green algae. We successfully fabricated thermosetting resins with a Chlorella sp. content of approximately 70 wt% or more. IR measurements revealed that the chemical structure of an epoxide or isocyanate monomer mixed with Chlorella sp. was modified, which suggests that the resins were hardened by the chemical reaction. In addition, we investigated the effect of thermosetting conditions such as temperature and compression for curing both resins. It was revealed that the Young’s moduli and tensile strengths were controlled by thermosetting temperature and compression, whereas the elongation ratios of the resins were constant at low values regardless of the conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biodegradable Polymers: Synthesis, Characterization and Applications)

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Review

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29 pages, 2075 KiB

Open AccessReview

Green Synthesis of Bioplastics from Microalgae: A State-of-the-Art Review

by Adegoke Isiaka Adetunji and Mariana Erasmus

Polymers 2024, 16(10), 1322; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16101322 - 8 May 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 6508

Abstract

The synthesis of conventional plastics has increased tremendously in the last decades due to rapid industrialization, population growth, and advancement in the use of modern technologies. However, overuse of these fossil fuel-based plastics has resulted in serious environmental and health hazards by causing pollution, global warming, etc. Therefore, the use of microalgae as a feedstock is a promising, green, and sustainable approach for the production of biobased plastics. Various biopolymers, such as polyhydroxybutyrate, polyurethane, polylactic acid, cellulose-based polymers, starch-based polymers, and protein-based polymers, can be produced from different strains of microalgae under varying culture conditions. Different techniques, including genetic engineering, metabolic engineering, the use of photobioreactors, response surface methodology, and artificial intelligence, are used to alter and improve microalgae stocks for the commercial synthesis of bioplastics at lower costs. In comparison to conventional plastics, these biobased plastics are biodegradable, biocompatible, recyclable, non-toxic, eco-friendly, and sustainable, with robust mechanical and thermoplastic properties. In addition, the bioplastics are suitable for a plethora of applications in the agriculture, construction, healthcare, electrical and electronics, and packaging industries. Thus, this review focuses on techniques for the production of biopolymers and bioplastics from microalgae. In addition, it discusses innovative and efficient strategies for large-scale bioplastic production while also providing insights into the life cycle assessment, end-of-life, and applications of bioplastics. Furthermore, some challenges affecting industrial scale bioplastics production and recommendations for future research are provided. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biodegradable Polymers: Synthesis, Characterization and Applications)

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35 pages, 5385 KiB

Open AccessReview

Bioabsorbable Composites Based on Polymeric Matrix (PLA and PCL) Reinforced with Magnesium (Mg) for Use in Bone Regeneration Therapy: Physicochemical Properties and Biological Evaluation

by Rubén García-Sobrino, Marta Muñoz, Elías Rodríguez-Jara, Joaquín Rams, Belén Torres and Sandra C. Cifuentes

Polymers 2023, 15(24), 4667; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15244667 - 11 Dec 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2283

Abstract

Improvements in Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine (TERM)–type technologies have allowed the development of specific materials that, together with a better understanding of bone tissue structure, have provided new pathways to obtain biomaterials for bone tissue regeneration. In this manuscript, bioabsorbable materials are presented as emerging materials in tissue engineering therapies related to bone lesions because of their ability to degrade in physiological environments while the regeneration process is completed. This comprehensive review aims to explore the studies, published since its inception (2010s) to the present, on bioabsorbable composite materials based on PLA and PCL polymeric matrix reinforced with Mg, which is also bioabsorbable and has recognized osteoinductive capacity. The research collected in the literature reveals studies based on different manufacturing and dispersion processes of the reinforcement as well as the physicochemical analysis and corresponding biological evaluation to know the osteoinductive capacity of the proposed PLA/Mg and PCL/Mg composites. In short, this review shows the potential of these composite materials and serves as a guide for those interested in bioabsorbable materials applied in bone tissue engineering. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biodegradable Polymers: Synthesis, Characterization and Applications)

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22 pages, 7315 KiB

Open AccessReview

Development of Stereocomplex Polylactide Nanocomposites as an Advanced Class of Biomaterials—A Review

by Muhammad Samsuri and Purba Purnama

Polymers 2023, 15(12), 2730; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15122730 - 19 Jun 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1726

Abstract

This review paper analyzes the development of advanced class polylactide (PLA) materials through a combination of stereocomplexation and nanocomposites approaches. The similarities in these approaches provide the opportunity to generate an advanced stereocomplex PLA nanocomposite (stereo-nano PLA) material with various beneficial properties. As a potential “green” polymer with tunable characteristics (e.g., modifiable molecular structure and organic–inorganic miscibility), stereo-nano PLA could be used for various advanced applications. The molecular structure modification of PLA homopolymers and nanoparticles in stereo-nano PLA materials enables us to encounter stereocomplexation and nanocomposites constraints. The hydrogen bonding of D- and L-lactide fragments aids in the formation of stereococomplex crystallites, while the hetero-nucleation capabilities of nanofillers result in a synergism that improves the physical, thermal, and mechanical properties of materials, including stereocomplex memory (melt stability) and nanoparticle dispersion. The special properties of selected nanoparticles also allow the production of stereo-nano PLA materials with distinctive characteristics, such as electrical conductivity, anti-inflammatory, and anti-bacterial properties. The D- and L-lactide chains in PLA copolymers provide self-assembly capabilities to form stable nanocarrier micelles for encapsulating nanoparticles. This development of advanced stereo-nano PLA with biodegradability, biocompatibility, and tunability properties shows potential for use in wider and advanced applications as a high-performance material, in engineering field, electronic, medical device, biomedical, diagnosis, and therapeutic applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biodegradable Polymers: Synthesis, Characterization and Applications)

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