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A special issue of Sensors (ISSN 1424-8220). This special issue belongs to the section "Remote Sensors".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 March 2023) | Viewed by 28273

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Prof. Dr. Andrzej Stateczny

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Department of Geodesy, Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Gdansk Technical University, Narutowicza St. 11/12, Gdansk, Poland
Interests: radar navigation; comparative (terrain-based) navigation; multi-sensor data fusion; radar and sonar target tracking; sonar imaging and understanding; MBES bathymetry; ASV; artificial neural networks; geoinformatics
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Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

As is well known, seas and oceans cover more than 70% of the Earth's surface. The part of the Earth's surface that is covered by water is often less well understood than the surface of the Moon or Mars. In recent years, hydrography, especially using autonomous vehicles, has become one of the leading research areas in the world. Sensors used so far in hydrography, mainly sonars and echosounders, are more and more commonly placed on unmanned vehicles that perform measurement functions in an autonomous manner. In addition to the hydroacoustic sensors used so far, magnetic or gravity sensors are used. They provide a variety of environmental data on both given bodies of water and on water depths. Rapidly developing new technologies such as multisensory data fusion, big data processing and deep learning are opening up new areas of application, improving sensors and applied hydrographic systems. The impact of artificial intelligence on the processing and understanding of sensor data is particularly pronounced. Echosounders, sonars, magnetometers, gravimeters, and other sensors mounted on board smart and flexible autonomous or remotely operated platforms are bringing new quality to hydrographic applications, including on various types of unmanned vehicles both surface and underwater. Systems and sensors designed for measurements, mainly bathymetric, placed on flying platforms are developing rapidly. These technologies, focusing on autonomous unmanned hydrography, represent contemporary scientific challenges.

In this Special Issue, we will collect articles on many aspects of underwater survey technology and advanced hydrographic problems, implemented mainly based on hydroacoustic, magnetometer, gravimetric, LiDAR sensors and video cameras, including applications in autonomous unmanned vehicles, such as autonomous hydrography, multisensory fusion, processing of large amounts of sensor data for hydrographic surveying, sensor synergy in hydrographic guidance, algorithms for bottom detection and underwater object detection, multisensory data fusion, and artificial intelligence methods in hydrography.

Prof. Dr. Andrzej Stateczny
Guest Editor

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Keywords

sonar target detection, bottom tracking algorithms and methods
echosounder data processing, data reduction, feature extraction, and image understanding
hydroacoustic technology for autonomous vehicles
synergy between sonar, magnetometer and other sensors
3D sonar for underwater mapping
shallow water bathymetry systems and sensors
bathymetric LiDAR technology
multi-sensor data fusion for hydrography
sensors based autonomous hydrography
artificial intelligence for hydrography sensors data processing
big data processing for hydrography
path-planning methods for autonomous underwater vehicle
deep learning algorithms for hydrography

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Published Papers (6 papers)

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24 pages, 6840 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Testing the Effect of Bathymetric Data Reduction on the Shape of the Digital Bottom Model

by Wiktor Mujta, Marta Wlodarczyk-Sielicka and Andrzej Stateczny

Sensors 2023, 23(12), 5445; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23125445 - 8 Jun 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1327

Abstract

Depth data and the digital bottom model created from it are very important in the inland and coastal water zones studies and research. The paper undertakes the subject of bathymetric data processing using reduction methods and examines the impact of data reduction according to the resulting representations of the bottom surface in the form of numerical bottom models. Data reduction is an approach that is meant to reduce the size of the input dataset to make it easier and more efficient for analysis, transmission, storage and similar. For the purposes of this article, test datasets were created by discretizing a selected polynomial function. The real dataset, which was used to verify the analyzes, was acquired using an interferometric echosounder mounted on a HydroDron-1 autonomous survey vessel. The data were collected in the ribbon of Lake Klodno, Zawory. Data reduction was conducted in two commercial programs. Three equal reduction parameters were adopted for each algorithm. The research part of the paper presents the results of the conducted analyzes of the reduced bathymetric datasets based on the visual comparison of numerical bottom models, isobaths, and statistical parameters. The article contains tabular results with statistics, as well as the spatial visualization of the studied fragments of numerical bottom models and isobaths. This research is being used in the course of work on an innovative project that aims to develop a prototype of a multi-dimensional and multi-temporal coastal zone monitoring system using autonomous, unmanned floating platforms at a single survey pass. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Hydrographic Systems and Sensors)

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23 pages, 2757 KiB

Open AccessArticle

On Quality Analysis of Filtration Methods for Bathymetric Data in Harbour Areas through QPS Qimera Software

by Witold Kazimierski and Małgorzata Jaremba

Sensors 2023, 23(11), 5076; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23115076 - 25 May 2023

Viewed by 2270

Abstract

This paper presents an assessment of the quality of selected filtration methods for the postprocessing of multibeam echosounder data. In this regard, the methodology used in the quality assessment of these data is an important factor. One of the most important final products derived from bathymetric data is the digital bottom model (DBM). Therefore, quality assessment is often based on factors related to it. In this paper, we propose some quantitative and qualitative factors to perform these assessments, and we analyze a few selected filtration methods as examples. This research makes use of real data gathered in real environments, preprocessed with typical hydrographic flow. The methods presented in this paper may be used in empirical solutions, and the filtration analysis may be useful for hydrographers choosing a filtration method for DBM interpolation. The results showed that both data-oriented and surface-oriented methods can be used in data filtration and that various evaluation methods show different perspectives on data filtration quality assessment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Hydrographic Systems and Sensors)

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26 pages, 10190 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

An Unmanned Surface Vehicle (USV): Development of an Autonomous Boat with a Sensor Integration System for Bathymetric Surveys

by Fernando Sotelo-Torres, Laura V. Alvarez and Robert C. Roberts

Sensors 2023, 23(9), 4420; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23094420 - 30 Apr 2023

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 16240

Abstract

A reliable yet economical unmanned surface vehicle (USV) has been developed for the bathymetric surveying of lakes. The system combines an autonomous navigation framework, environmental sensors, and a multibeam echosounder to collect submerged topography, temperature, and wind speed and monitor the vehicle’s status during prescribed path-planning missions. The main objective of this research is to provide a methodological framework to build an autonomous boat with independent decision-making, efficient control, and long-range navigation capabilities. Integration of sensors with navigation control enabled the automatization of position, orientation, and velocity. A solar power integration was also tested to control the duration of the autonomous missions. The results of the solar power compared favorably with those of the standard LiPO battery system. Extended and autonomous missions were achieved with the developed platform, which can also evaluate the danger level, weather circumstances, and energy consumption through real-time data analysis. With all the incorporated sensors and controls, this USV can make self-governing decisions and improve its safety. A technical evaluation of the proposed vehicle was conducted as a measurable metric of the reliability and robustness of the prototype. Overall, a reliable, economic, and self-powered autonomous system has been designed and built to retrieve bathymetric surveys as a first step to developing intelligent reconnaissance systems that combine field robotics with machine learning to make decisions and adapt to unknown environments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Hydrographic Systems and Sensors)

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19 pages, 10442 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Velocity Vector Estimation of Two-Dimensional Flow Field Based on STIV

by Jianghuai Lu, Xiaohong Yang and Jianping Wang

Sensors 2023, 23(2), 955; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23020955 - 13 Jan 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2325

Abstract

As an important part of hydrometry, river discharge monitoring plays an irreplaceable role in the planning and management of water resources and is an essential element and necessary means of river management. Due to its benefits of simplicity, efficiency and safety, Space-Time Image Velocimetry (STIV) has attracted attention from all around the world. The most crucial component of the STIV is the detection of the Main Orientation of Texture (MOT), and the precision of detection directly affects the results of calculations. However, due to the complicated river flow characteristics and the harsh testing environment in the field, a large amount of noise and interfering textures show up in the space-time images, which affects the detection results of the MOT. In response to the shortage of noise and interference texture, a new non-contact image analysis method is developed. Firstly, Multi-scale Retinex (MSR) is proposed to pre-process the images for contrast enhancement; secondly, a fourth-order Gaussian derivative steerable filter is employed to enhance the structure of the texture; next, based on the probability density distribution function and the orientations of the enhanced images, the noise suppression function and the orientation-filtering function are designed to filter out the noise to highlight the texture. Finally, the Fourier Maximum Angle Analysis (FMAA) is used to filter out the noise further and obtain the clear orientations to achieve the measurement of velocity and discharge. The experimental results show that, compared with the widely used image velocimetry measurements, the accuracy of our method in the average velocity and flow discharge is significantly improved, and the real-time performance is excellent. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Hydrographic Systems and Sensors)

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18 pages, 5281 KiB

Open AccessArticle

How Good Is a Tactical-Grade GNSS + INS (MEMS and FOG) in a 20-m Bathymetric Survey?

by Johnson O. Oguntuase, Anand Hiroji and Peter Komolafe

Sensors 2023, 23(2), 754; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23020754 - 9 Jan 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2910

Abstract

This paper examines how tactical-grade Inertial Navigation Systems (INS), aided by Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) modules, vary from a survey-grade system in the bathymetric mapping in depths less than 20 m. The motivation stems from the advancements in sensor developments, measurement processing algorithms, and the proliferation of autonomous and uncrewed surface vehicles often seeking to use tactical-grade systems for high-quality bathymetric products. While the performance of survey-grade GNSS + INS is well-known to the hydrographic and marine science community, the performance and limitations of the tactical-grade micro-electro-mechanical system (MEMS) and tactical-grade fiber-optic-gyro (FOG) INS aided with GNSS require some study to answer the following questions: (1) How close or far is the tactical-grade GNSS + INS performance from the survey-grade systems? (2) For what survey order (IHO S-44 6th ed.) can a user deploy them? (3) Can we use them for navigation chart production? We attempt to answer these questions by deploying two tactical-grade GNSS + INS units (MEMS and FOG) and a survey-grade GNSS + INS on a survey boat. All systems collected data while operating a multibeam system with the lever-arm offsets accurately determined using a total station. The tactical-grade GNSS + INSs shared one pair of antennas for heading, while the survey-grade system used an independent antenna pair. We analyze the GNSS + INS results in sequence, examine the patch-test results, and the sensor-specific SBET-integrated bathymetric surfaces as metrics for determining the tactical-grade GNSS + INSs’ reliability. In addition, we evaluate the multibeam’s sounding uncertainties at different beam angles. The bathymetric surfaces using the tactical-grade navigation solutions are within 15 cm of the surface generated with the survey-grade solutions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Hydrographic Systems and Sensors)

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14 pages, 7081 KiB

Open AccessTechnical Note

Coastal Bathymetric Sounding in Very Shallow Water Using USV: Study of Public Beach in Gdynia, Poland

by Artur Makar

Sensors 2023, 23(9), 4215; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23094215 - 23 Apr 2023

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2085

Abstract

The bathymetric surveys executed with a use of small survey vessels in limited water areas, including offshore areas, require precise determination of the geospatial coordinates of the seabed which is a synthesis of, among others, determining the position coordinates and measuring the depth. Inclination of the seabed and the declining depth make manoeuvring of the sounding vessel, e.g., a hydrographic motorboat or Unmanned Survey Vehicle (USV), in shallow water impossible. Therefore, it is important to determine the minimal depth for the survey resulting from the draught of the sounding vessel and the limits of the sounding area. The boundaries also result from the dimensions of the sounding vessel, its manoeuvring parameters and local water level. Type of the echosounder used in the bathymetric survey is a decisive factor for the sounding profile planning and the distances between them and the survey vessel for the possibility performing the measurements in shallow water. Electronic Navigational Chart (ENC) was used to determine the water area’s boundaries, and the safety contours were determined on the basis of the built Digital Sea Bottom Model (DSBM). The safety contour, together with the vessel’s dimensions, its manoeuvring parameters and the hydrometeorological conditions, limit the offshore area in which the measurement can be performed. A method of determining boundaries of the survey performed by a USV equipped with SingleBeam EchoSounder (SBES) on survey lines perpendicular to the coastal line are presented in the paper in order to cover the water area with the highest amount of measurement data, with the USV’s navigational safety taken into consideration. The measurements executed on the municipal beach served verification of the DSBM. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Hydrographic Systems and Sensors)

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