Sensors

Research

Jump to: Review

16 pages, 599 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Towards Enhancing the Robustness of Scale-Free IoT Networks by an Intelligent Rewiring Mechanism

by Syed Minhal Abbas, Nadeem Javaid, Ahmad Taher Azar, Umar Qasim, Zahoor Ali Khan and Sheraz Aslam

Sensors 2022, 22(7), 2658; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22072658 - 30 Mar 2022

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 2394

Abstract

The enhancement of Robustness (R) has gained significant importance in Scale-Free Networks (SFNs) over the past few years. SFNs are resilient to Random Attacks (RAs). However, these networks are prone to Malicious Attacks (MAs). This study aims to construct a robust network against [...] Read more.

The enhancement of Robustness (R) has gained significant importance in Scale-Free Networks (SFNs) over the past few years. SFNs are resilient to Random Attacks (RAs). However, these networks are prone to Malicious Attacks (MAs). This study aims to construct a robust network against MAs. An Intelligent Rewiring (INTR) mechanism is proposed to optimize the network R against MAs. In this mechanism, edge rewiring is performed between the high and low degree nodes to make a robust network. The Closeness Centrality (CC) measure is utilized to determine the central nodes in the network. Based on the measure, MAs are performed on nodes to damage the network. Therefore, the connections of the neighboring nodes in the network are greatly affected by removing the central nodes. To analyze the network connectivity against the removal of nodes, the performance of CC is found to be more efficient in terms of computational time as compared to Betweenness Centrality (BC) and Eigenvector Centrality (EC). In addition, the Recalculated High Degree based Link Attacks (RHDLA) and the High Degree based Link Attacks (HDLA) are performed to affect the network connectivity. Using the local information of SFN, these attacks damage the vital portion of the network. The INTR outperforms Simulated Annealing (SA) and ROSE in terms of R by 17.8% and 10.7%, respectively. During the rewiring mechanism, the distribution of nodes’ degrees remains constant. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wireless Sensor Networks in the IoT: New Challenges)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

24 pages, 566 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Towards LoRaWAN without Data Loss: Studying the Performance of Different Channel Access Approaches

by Frank Loh, Noah Mehling and Tobias Hoßfeld

Sensors 2022, 22(2), 691; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22020691 - 17 Jan 2022

Cited by 23 | Viewed by 3571

Abstract

The Long Range Wide Area Network (LoRaWAN) is one of the fastest growing Internet of Things (IoT) access protocols. It operates in the license free 868 MHz band and gives everyone the possibility to create their own small sensor networks. The drawback of [...] Read more.

The Long Range Wide Area Network (LoRaWAN) is one of the fastest growing Internet of Things (IoT) access protocols. It operates in the license free 868 MHz band and gives everyone the possibility to create their own small sensor networks. The drawback of this technology is often unscheduled or random channel access, which leads to message collisions and potential data loss. For that reason, recent literature studies alternative approaches for LoRaWAN channel access. In this work, state-of-the-art random channel access is compared with alternative approaches from the literature by means of collision probability. Furthermore, a time scheduled channel access methodology is presented to completely avoid collisions in LoRaWAN. For this approach, an exhaustive simulation study was conducted and the performance was evaluated with random access cross-traffic. In a general theoretical analysis the limits of the time scheduled approach are discussed to comply with duty cycle regulations in LoRaWAN. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wireless Sensor Networks in the IoT: New Challenges)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

15 pages, 2529 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Improving the Accuracy of Estimates of Indoor Distance Moved Using Deep Learning-Based Movement Status Recognition

by Zhenjie Ma, Wenjun Zhang and Ke Shi

Sensors 2022, 22(1), 346; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22010346 - 4 Jan 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2184

Abstract

As a result of the development of wireless indoor positioning techniques such as WiFi, Bluetooth, and Ultra-wideband (UWB), the positioning traces of moving people or objects in indoor environments can be tracked and recorded, and the distances moved can be estimated from these [...] Read more.

As a result of the development of wireless indoor positioning techniques such as WiFi, Bluetooth, and Ultra-wideband (UWB), the positioning traces of moving people or objects in indoor environments can be tracked and recorded, and the distances moved can be estimated from these data traces. These estimates are very useful in many applications such as workload statistics and optimized job allocation in the field of logistics. However, due to the uncertainties of the wireless signal and corresponding positioning errors, accurately estimating movement distance still faces challenges. To address this issue, this paper proposes a movement status recognition-based distance estimating method to improve the accuracy. We divide the positioning traces into segments and use an encoder–decoder deep learning-based model to determine the motion status of each segment. Then, the distances of these segments are calculated by different distance estimating methods based on their movement statuses. The experiments on the real positioning traces demonstrate the proposed method can precisely identify the movement status and significantly improve the distance estimating accuracy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wireless Sensor Networks in the IoT: New Challenges)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

36 pages, 588 KiB

Open AccessArticle

LC-DEX: Lightweight and Efficient Compressed Authentication Based Elliptic Curve Cryptography in Multi-Hop 6LoWPAN Wireless Sensor Networks in HIP-Based Internet of Things

by Balkis Bettoumi and Ridha Bouallegue

Sensors 2021, 21(21), 7348; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21217348 - 4 Nov 2021

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2678

Abstract

The high level of security requirements and low capabilities of constrained devices that are connected to the Internet of Things (IoT) constitute a new challenge in terms of proposing an authentication solution that deals with the problem of energy constraints. The Host Identity [...] Read more.

The high level of security requirements and low capabilities of constrained devices that are connected to the Internet of Things (IoT) constitute a new challenge in terms of proposing an authentication solution that deals with the problem of energy constraints. The Host Identity Protocol Diet EXchange (HIP DEX) is primarily designed to be suitable for constrained devices and designed to be resistant to Denial of Service (DoS) and man-in-the-middle (MITM) attacks. In this paper, we propose an efficient saving energy solution to secure end-to-end (E2E) communications based on the compression of the IPv6 over Low Power Wireless Personal Area Networks (6LoWPAN) header for HIP DEX packets. We implement our solution in an IoT based-WSN over Constrained Application Protocol (CoAP) in the application layer and Routing Protocol for Low power and lossy networks (RPL) in the routing layer. We also propose a novel distribution model that minimizes the number of signaling messages. Both proposed compression and distribution models for HIP DEX combined with an original implementation of an opportunistic association establishment of the handshake, constitute an efficient security solution for IoT. We called our solution Lightweight Compressed HIP DEX in the IoT (LC-DEX). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wireless Sensor Networks in the IoT: New Challenges)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

14 pages, 619 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Impact of Cybersecurity Practices on Cyberattack Damage: The Perspective of Small Enterprises in Saudi Arabia

by Fawaz Alharbi, Majid Alsulami, Abdullatif AL-Solami, Yazeed Al-Otaibi, Meshaal Al-Osimi, Fahad Al-Qanor and Khalid Al-Otaibi

Sensors 2021, 21(20), 6901; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21206901 - 18 Oct 2021

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 7841

Abstract

Small and medium-sized enterprises represent the majority of enterprises globally and yet have some difficulties in understanding the impact that cybersecurity threats could have on their businesses and the damage they could do to their assets. This study aims to measure the effectiveness [...] Read more.

Small and medium-sized enterprises represent the majority of enterprises globally and yet have some difficulties in understanding the impact that cybersecurity threats could have on their businesses and the damage they could do to their assets. This study aims to measure the effectiveness of security practices at small-sized enterprises in Saudi Arabia in the event of a cybersecurity attack. Our paper is among the first research papers to measure the effectiveness of cybersecurity practices and the threat posed by cybersecurity breaches among small enterprises in the event of cybersecurity attacks. A total of 282 respondents participated, all of them representing small-sized enterprises in Saudi Arabia. The study applies multiple regression tests to analyze the effectiveness of 12 cybersecurity practices in three aspects: financial damage, loss of sensitive data, and restoration time, at small enterprises. The findings indicate that having an inspection team and a recovery plan may limit the financial damage caused by cybersecurity attacks on small enterprises. The results also show that cybersecurity awareness, knowledge of cybersecurity damage, and professionals’ salaries were related to the loss of sensitive data. Furthermore, the results indicate that contact with cybersecurity authorities and having an inspection team have statistically significant effects on restoration time. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wireless Sensor Networks in the IoT: New Challenges)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

25 pages, 1368 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Eventual Convergence of the Reputation-Based Algorithm in IoT Sensor Networks

by Jacek Lebiedź, Piotr Cofta and Cezary Orłowski

Sensors 2021, 21(18), 6211; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21186211 - 16 Sep 2021

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1853

Abstract

Uncertainty in dense heterogeneous IoT sensor networks can be decreased by applying reputation-inspired algorithms, such as the EWMA (Exponentially Weighted Moving Average) algorithm, which is widely used in social networks. Despite its popularity, the eventual convergence of this algorithm for the purpose of [...] Read more.

Uncertainty in dense heterogeneous IoT sensor networks can be decreased by applying reputation-inspired algorithms, such as the EWMA (Exponentially Weighted Moving Average) algorithm, which is widely used in social networks. Despite its popularity, the eventual convergence of this algorithm for the purpose of IoT networks has not been widely studied, and results of simulations are often taken in lieu of the more rigorous proof. Therefore the question remains, whether under stable conditions, in realistic situations found in IoT networks, this algorithm indeed converges. This paper demonstrates proof of the eventual convergence of the EWMA algorithm. The proof consists of two steps: it models the sensor network as the UOG (Uniform Opinion Graph) that enables the analytical approach to the problem, and then offers the mathematical proof of eventual convergence, using formalizations identified in the previous step. The paper demonstrates that the EWMA algorithm converges under all realistic conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wireless Sensor Networks in the IoT: New Challenges)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

19 pages, 5885 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Link-Correlation-Aware Opportunistic Routing in Low-Duty-Cycle Wireless Networks

by Xingfa Shen, Lili Liu, Zhenxian Ni, Mingxin Liu, Bei Zhao and Yuling Shang

Sensors 2021, 21(11), 3840; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21113840 - 1 Jun 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2423

Abstract

In low-duty-cycle wireless networks with unreliable and correlated links, Opportunistic Routing (OR) is extremely costly because of the unaligned working schedules of nodes within a common candidate forwarder set. In this work, we propose a novel polynomial-time node scheduling scheme considering link correlation [...] Read more.

In low-duty-cycle wireless networks with unreliable and correlated links, Opportunistic Routing (OR) is extremely costly because of the unaligned working schedules of nodes within a common candidate forwarder set. In this work, we propose a novel polynomial-time node scheduling scheme considering link correlation for OR in low-duty-cycle wireless networks (LDC-COR), which significantly improves the performance by assigning nodes with low correlation to a common group and scheduling the nodes within this group to wake up simultaneously for forwarding packets in a common cycle. By taking account of both link correlation and link quality, the performance of the expected transmission count (ETX) is improved by adopting the LDC-COR protocol. As a result, the energy consumption of low-duty-cycle OR is significantly reduced. LDC-COR only requires the information of one-hop neighboring nodes which introduces minimal communication overhead. The proposed LDC-COR bridges the gap between the nodes’ limited energy resource and the application lifetime requirements. We evaluate the performance of LDC-COR with extensive simulations and a physical wireless testbed consisting of 20 TelosB nodes. The evaluation results show that both transmission efficiency and energy consumption of low-duty-cycle OR are significantly improved with only a slight increase of end-to-end delay. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wireless Sensor Networks in the IoT: New Challenges)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

18 pages, 3945 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Effective Algorithm to Find a Cost Minimizing Gateway Deployment for Node-Replaceable Wireless Sensor Networks

by Sun-Ho Choi, Yoonkyung Jang, Hyowon Seo, Bum Il Hong and Intae Ryoo

Sensors 2021, 21(5), 1732; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21051732 - 3 Mar 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2037

Abstract

In this paper, we present an efficient way to find a gateway deployment for a given sensor network topology. We assume that the expired sensors and gateways can be replaced and the locations of the gateways are chosen among the given sensor nodes. [...] Read more.

In this paper, we present an efficient way to find a gateway deployment for a given sensor network topology. We assume that the expired sensors and gateways can be replaced and the locations of the gateways are chosen among the given sensor nodes. The objective is to find a gateway deployment that minimizes the cost per unit time, which consists of the maintenance and installation costs. The proposed algorithm creates a cost reference and uses it to find the optimal deployment via a divide and conquer algorithm. Comparing all cases is the most reliable way to find the optimal gateway deployment, but this is practically impossible to calculate, since its computation time increases exponentially as the number of nodes increases. The method we propose increases linearly, and so is suitable for large scale networks. Additionally, compared to stochastic algorithms such as the genetic algorithm, this methodology has advantages in computational speed and accuracy for a large number of nodes. We also verify our methodology through several numerical experiments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wireless Sensor Networks in the IoT: New Challenges)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

Review

Jump to: Research

31 pages, 1366 KiB

Open AccessReview

Prospect of Internet of Medical Things: A Review on Security Requirements and Solutions

by Pintu Kumar Sadhu, Venkata P. Yanambaka, Ahmed Abdelgawad and Kumar Yelamarthi

Sensors 2022, 22(15), 5517; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22155517 - 24 Jul 2022

Cited by 43 | Viewed by 5803

Abstract

With the widespread and increasing use of Internet-of-Things (IoT) devices in all aspects of daily life, a hopeful future for people, data, and processes is emerging. Extensive spans allow for an integrated life cycle to be created from home to enterprise. The Internet [...] Read more.

With the widespread and increasing use of Internet-of-Things (IoT) devices in all aspects of daily life, a hopeful future for people, data, and processes is emerging. Extensive spans allow for an integrated life cycle to be created from home to enterprise. The Internet of Medical Things (IoMT) forms a flourishing surface that incorporates the sensitive information of human life being sent to doctors or hospitals. These open an enormous space for hackers to utilize flaws of the IoMT network to make a profit. This creates a demand for standardizing regulations and a secure system. Though many authorities are making standards, there are some lacking in the system which makes the product vulnerable. Although many established mechanisms are present for the IoT network, there are a number of obstacles preventing its general implementation in the IoMT network. One of the adoption challenges is the IoMT devices itself, because many IoMT networks consist of battery-powered devices with constrained processing capability. A general overview of the different security integrations with IoT applications has been presented in several papers. Therefore, this paper aims to provide an overview of the IoMT ecosystem, regulations, challenges of standards, security mechanisms using cryptographic solutions, physical unclonable functions (PUF)-based solutions, blockchain, and named data networking (NDN) as well, with pros and cons. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wireless Sensor Networks in the IoT: New Challenges)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

21 pages, 1013 KiB

Open AccessReview

A Systematic Review of Location Aware Schemes in the Internet of Things

by Muneeb A. Khan, Abdul Saboor, Hyun-chul Kim and Heemin Park

Sensors 2021, 21(9), 3228; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21093228 - 6 May 2021

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 3831

Abstract

The rapid development in wireless technologies is positioning the Internet of Things (IoT) as an essential part of our daily lives. Localization is one of the most attractive applications related to IoT. In the past few years, localization has been gaining attention because [...] Read more.

The rapid development in wireless technologies is positioning the Internet of Things (IoT) as an essential part of our daily lives. Localization is one of the most attractive applications related to IoT. In the past few years, localization has been gaining attention because of its applicability in safety, health monitoring, environment monitoring, and security. As a result, various localization-based wireless frameworks are being presented to improve such applications’ performances based on specific key performance indicators (KPIs). Therefore, this paper explores the recently proposed localization schemes in IoT. Initially, this paper explains the major KPIs of localization. After that, a thorough comparison of recently proposed localization schemes based on the KPIs is presented. The comparison includes an overview, architecture, network structure, performance parameters, and target KPIs. At the end, possible future directions are presented for the researchers working in this domain. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wireless Sensor Networks in the IoT: New Challenges)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

Journal Menu

Journal Browser

Wireless Sensor Networks in the IoT: New Challenges

Share This Special Issue

Special Issue Editor

Special Issue Information

Keywords

Benefits of Publishing in a Special Issue

Published Papers (10 papers)

Research

Review

Further Information

Guidelines

MDPI Initiatives

Follow MDPI