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Acoustic Waveguide Sensors

A special issue of Sensors (ISSN 1424-8220).

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 March 2015) | Viewed by 154174

Special Issue Editor

Prof. Dr. Gerhard Lindner

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Institute of Sensor and Actuator Technology, Coburg University of Applied Sciences and Arts, Am Hofbräuhaus 1, 96450 Coburg, Germany
Interests: surface acoustic wave sensors; acoustic streaming; mechanical resonator sensors; industrial sensor applications
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Acoustic waveguides are physical structures for guiding sound waves. The propagation of sound waves along such structures, however, is influenced both by the material properties of the structure and the properties of the environment. This allows numerous sensorial applications, such as touch sensing, chemical and biochemical sensing, sensing of level and composition of liquids, temperature, stress and torque sensing. In addition, wireless remote sensing using radio frequency interrogation can be accomplished by such devices. This concept also provides a novel approach to non-destructive material testing, in particular with respect to near-surface properties. Different modes of acoustic waves have been employed in such devices, in particular surface acoustic waves such as Rayleigh- and Lamb-waves, Love waves or Scholte waves. This Special Issue shall provide an overview across the different constructions and functions of such acoustic wave sensors and their various applications.

Submission of both review articles and original research papers relating to acoustic waveguide sensors will be much appreciated. There is particular interest in contributions highlighting sensorial properties of such sensors which cannot be achieved using other sensorial concepts.

Prof. Dr. Gerhard Lindner
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

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Related Special Issues

Keywords

  • acoustic waveguides
  • touch sensors
  • liquid sensors
  • biosensors
  • chemical sensors
  • wireless sensors
  • surface acoustic waves
  • rayleigh waves
  • lamb waves
  • love waves

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Published Papers (21 papers)

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Research

519 KiB  
Article
A Hybrid Sender- and Receiver-Initiated Protocol Scheme in Underwater Acoustic Sensor Networks
by Jae-Won Lee and Ho-Shin Cho
Sensors 2015, 15(11), 28052-28069; https://doi.org/10.3390/s151128052 - 5 Nov 2015
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 6268
Abstract
In this paper, we propose a method for sharing the handshakes of control packets among multiple nodes, which we call a hybrid sender- and receiver-initiated (HSR) protocol scheme. Handshake-sharing can be achieved by inviting neighbors to join the current handshake and by allowing [...] Read more.
In this paper, we propose a method for sharing the handshakes of control packets among multiple nodes, which we call a hybrid sender- and receiver-initiated (HSR) protocol scheme. Handshake-sharing can be achieved by inviting neighbors to join the current handshake and by allowing them to send their data packets without requiring extra handshakes. Thus, HSR can reduce the signaling overhead involved in control packet exchanges during handshakes, as well as resolve the spatial unfairness problem between nodes. From an operational perspective, HSR resembles the well-known handshake-sharing scheme referred to as the medium access control (MAC) protocol using reverse opportunistic packet appending (ROPA). However, in ROPA the waiting time is not controllable for the receiver’s neighbors and thus unexpected collisions may occur at the receiver due to hidden neighbors, whereas the proposed scheme allows all nodes to avoid hidden-node-induced collisions according to an elaborately calculated waiting time. Our computer simulations demonstrated that HSR outperforms ROPA with respect to both the throughput and delay by around 9.65% and 11.36%, respectively. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Acoustic Waveguide Sensors)
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1020 KiB  
Article
Maximum Measurement Range and Accuracy of SAW Reflective Delay Line Sensors
by Zehua Zheng, Tao Han and Peng Qin
Sensors 2015, 15(10), 26643-26653; https://doi.org/10.3390/s151026643 - 20 Oct 2015
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 5922
Abstract
In a surface acoustic wave (SAW) wireless sensor with a reflective delay line structure, three reflectors are often used to eliminate 2π ambiguity of phase measurement. The maximum range of the measured parameter and the maximum accuracy have recently been attracting much research [...] Read more.
In a surface acoustic wave (SAW) wireless sensor with a reflective delay line structure, three reflectors are often used to eliminate 2π ambiguity of phase measurement. The maximum range of the measured parameter and the maximum accuracy have recently been attracting much research attention. In this paper, an analytical formula for all the factors influencing the measurement range and accuracy of the delay line SAW sensor are deduced for the first time. The factors include: the sensor sensitivity, the topology of the delay line, the available wireless bandwidth and the allowed maximum phase measuring error of the reading system, which is easier to retrieve and more fully describes the possible noises than SNR. Additionally, many designers believe that increasing the reflector could improve accuracy continuously or realize multi-resolution measurement. However, they ignore some certain criteria that the reflector location must satisfy. The reachable maximum accuracy by every increase of a reflector is also presented. A SAW temperature sensor system using 128° YX-LiNbO3 is designed to verify the above theoretical analysis. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Acoustic Waveguide Sensors)
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1840 KiB  
Article
The Different Sensitive Behaviors of a Hydrogen-Bond Acidic Polymer-Coated SAW Sensor for Chemical Warfare Agents and Their Simulants
by Yin Long, Yang Wang, Xiaosong Du, Luhua Cheng, Penglin Wu and Yadong Jiang
Sensors 2015, 15(8), 18302-18314; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150818302 - 28 Jul 2015
Cited by 22 | Viewed by 7117
Abstract
A linear hydrogen-bond acidic (HBA) linear functionalized polymer (PLF), was deposited onto a bare surface acoustic wave (SAW) device to fabricate a chemical sensor. Real-time responses of the sensor to a series of compounds including sarin (GB), dimethyl methylphosphonate (DMMP), mustard gas (HD), [...] Read more.
A linear hydrogen-bond acidic (HBA) linear functionalized polymer (PLF), was deposited onto a bare surface acoustic wave (SAW) device to fabricate a chemical sensor. Real-time responses of the sensor to a series of compounds including sarin (GB), dimethyl methylphosphonate (DMMP), mustard gas (HD), chloroethyl ethyl sulphide (2-CEES), 1,5-dichloropentane (DCP) and some organic solvents were studied. The results show that the sensor is highly sensitive to GB and DMMP, and has low sensitivity to HD and DCP, as expected. However, the sensor possesses an unexpected high sensitivity toward 2-CEES. This good sensing performance can’t be solely or mainly attributed to the dipole-dipole interaction since the sensor is not sensitive to some high polarity solvents. We believe the lone pair electrons around the sulphur atom of 2-CEES provide an electron-rich site, which facilitates the formation of hydrogen bonding between PLF and 2-CEES. On the contrary, the electron cloud on the sulphur atom of the HD molecule is offset or depleted by its two neighbouring strong electron-withdrawing groups, hence, hydrogen bonding can hardly be formed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Acoustic Waveguide Sensors)
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1232 KiB  
Article
Design of a Thermoacoustic Sensor for Low Intensity Ultrasound Measurements Based on an Artificial Neural Network
by Jida Xing and Jie Chen
Sensors 2015, 15(6), 14788-14808; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150614788 - 23 Jun 2015
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 7135
Abstract
In therapeutic ultrasound applications, accurate ultrasound output intensities are crucial because the physiological effects of therapeutic ultrasound are very sensitive to the intensity and duration of these applications. Although radiation force balance is a benchmark technique for measuring ultrasound intensity and power, it [...] Read more.
In therapeutic ultrasound applications, accurate ultrasound output intensities are crucial because the physiological effects of therapeutic ultrasound are very sensitive to the intensity and duration of these applications. Although radiation force balance is a benchmark technique for measuring ultrasound intensity and power, it is costly, difficult to operate, and compromised by noise vibration. To overcome these limitations, the development of a low-cost, easy to operate, and vibration-resistant alternative device is necessary for rapid ultrasound intensity measurement. Therefore, we proposed and validated a novel two-layer thermoacoustic sensor using an artificial neural network technique to accurately measure low ultrasound intensities between 30 and 120 mW/cm2. The first layer of the sensor design is a cylindrical absorber made of plexiglass, followed by a second layer composed of polyurethane rubber with a high attenuation coefficient to absorb extra ultrasound energy. The sensor determined ultrasound intensities according to a temperature elevation induced by heat converted from incident acoustic energy. Compared with our previous one-layer sensor design, the new two-layer sensor enhanced the ultrasound absorption efficiency to provide more rapid and reliable measurements. Using a three-dimensional model in the K-wave toolbox, our simulation of the ultrasound propagation process demonstrated that the two-layer design is more efficient than the single layer design. We also integrated an artificial neural network algorithm to compensate for the large measurement offset. After obtaining multiple parameters of the sensor characteristics through calibration, the artificial neural network is built to correct temperature drifts and increase the reliability of our thermoacoustic measurements through iterative training about ten seconds. The performance of the artificial neural network method was validated through a series of experiments. Compared to our previous design, the new design reduced sensing time from 20 s to 12 s, and the sensor’s average error from 3.97 mW/cm2 to 1.31 mW/cm2 respectively. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Acoustic Waveguide Sensors)
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1066 KiB  
Article
Passive Acoustic Source Localization at a Low Sampling Rate Based on a Five-Element Cross Microphone Array
by Yue Kan, Pengfei Wang, Fusheng Zha, Mantian Li, Wa Gao and Baoyu Song
Sensors 2015, 15(6), 13326-13347; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150613326 - 5 Jun 2015
Cited by 15 | Viewed by 7546
Abstract
Accurate acoustic source localization at a low sampling rate (less than 10 kHz) is still a challenging problem for small portable systems, especially for a multitasking micro-embedded system. A modification of the generalized cross-correlation (GCC) method with the up-sampling (US) theory is proposed [...] Read more.
Accurate acoustic source localization at a low sampling rate (less than 10 kHz) is still a challenging problem for small portable systems, especially for a multitasking micro-embedded system. A modification of the generalized cross-correlation (GCC) method with the up-sampling (US) theory is proposed and defined as the US-GCC method, which can improve the accuracy of the time delay of arrival (TDOA) and source location at a low sampling rate. In this work, through the US operation, an input signal with a certain sampling rate can be converted into another signal with a higher frequency. Furthermore, the optimal interpolation factor for the US operation is derived according to localization computation time and the standard deviation (SD) of target location estimations. On the one hand, simulation results show that absolute errors of the source locations based on the US-GCC method with an interpolation factor of 15 are approximately from 1/15- to 1/12-times those based on the GCC method, when the initial same sampling rates of both methods are 8 kHz. On the other hand, a simple and small portable passive acoustic source localization platform composed of a five-element cross microphone array has been designed and set up in this paper. The experiments on the established platform, which accurately locates a three-dimensional (3D) near-field target at a low sampling rate demonstrate that the proposed method is workable. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Acoustic Waveguide Sensors)
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2784 KiB  
Article
Longitudinal Modes along Thin Piezoelectric Waveguides for Liquid Sensing Applications
by Cinzia Caliendo
Sensors 2015, 15(6), 12841-12856; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150612841 - 2 Jun 2015
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 5682
Abstract
The propagation of longitudinally polarized acoustic modes along thin piezoelectric plates (BN, ZnO, InN, AlN and GaN) is theoretically studied, aiming at the design of high frequency electroacoustic devices suitable for work in liquid environments. The investigation of the acoustic field profile across [...] Read more.
The propagation of longitudinally polarized acoustic modes along thin piezoelectric plates (BN, ZnO, InN, AlN and GaN) is theoretically studied, aiming at the design of high frequency electroacoustic devices suitable for work in liquid environments. The investigation of the acoustic field profile across the plate revealed the presence of longitudinally polarized Lamb modes, travelling at velocities close to that of the longitudinal bulk acoustic wave propagating in the same direction. Such waves are suitable for the implementation of high-frequency, low-loss electroacoustic devices operating in liquid environments. The time-averaged power flow density, the phase velocity and the electroacoustic coupling coefficient K2 dispersion curves were studied, for the first (S0) and four higher order (S1, S2, S3, S4) symmetrical modes for different electrical boundary conditions. Two electroacoustic coupling configurations were investigated, based on interdigitated transducers, with or without a metal floating electrode at the opposite plate surface. Enhanced performances, such as a K2 as high as 8.5% and a phase velocity as high as 16,700 m/s, were demostrated for the ZnO- and BN-based waveguides, as an example. The relative velocity changes, and the inertial and viscous sensitivities of the first symmetric and anti-symmetric mode, S0 and A0, propagating along thin plates bordered by a viscous liquid were derived using the perturbation approach. The present study highlights the feasibility of the piezoelectric waveguides to the development of high-frequency, integrated-circuits compatible electroacoustic devices suitable for working in liquid environment. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Acoustic Waveguide Sensors)
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862 KiB  
Article
Low-Cost Impact Detection and Location for Automated Inspections of 3D Metallic Based Structures
by Carlos Morón, Marina P. Portilla, José A. Somolinos and Rafael Morales
Sensors 2015, 15(6), 12651-12667; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150612651 - 28 May 2015
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 5389
Abstract
This paper describes a new low-cost means to detect and locate mechanical impacts (collisions) on a 3D metal-based structure. We employ the simple and reasonably hypothesis that the use of a homogeneous material will allow certain details of the impact to be automatically [...] Read more.
This paper describes a new low-cost means to detect and locate mechanical impacts (collisions) on a 3D metal-based structure. We employ the simple and reasonably hypothesis that the use of a homogeneous material will allow certain details of the impact to be automatically determined by measuring the time delays of acoustic wave propagation throughout the 3D structure. The location of strategic piezoelectric sensors on the structure and an electronic-computerized system has allowed us to determine the instant and position at which the impact is produced. The proposed automatic system allows us to fully integrate impact point detection and the task of inspecting the point or zone at which this impact occurs. What is more, the proposed method can be easily integrated into a robot-based inspection system capable of moving over 3D metallic structures, thus avoiding (or minimizing) the need for direct human intervention. Experimental results are provided to show the effectiveness of the proposed approach. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Acoustic Waveguide Sensors)
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1740 KiB  
Article
Surface Acoustic Wave (SAW) Resonators for Monitoring Conditioning Film Formation
by Siegfried Hohmann, Svea Kögel, Yvonne Brunner, Barbara Schmieg, Christina Ewald, Frank Kirschhöfer, Gerald Brenner-Weiß and Kerstin Länge
Sensors 2015, 15(5), 11873-11888; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150511873 - 21 May 2015
Cited by 23 | Viewed by 9150
Abstract
We propose surface acoustic wave (SAW) resonators as a complementary tool for conditioning film monitoring. Conditioning films are formed by adsorption of inorganic and organic substances on a substrate the moment this substrate comes into contact with a liquid phase. In the case [...] Read more.
We propose surface acoustic wave (SAW) resonators as a complementary tool for conditioning film monitoring. Conditioning films are formed by adsorption of inorganic and organic substances on a substrate the moment this substrate comes into contact with a liquid phase. In the case of implant insertion, for instance, initial protein adsorption is required to start wound healing, but it will also trigger immune reactions leading to inflammatory responses. The control of the initial protein adsorption would allow to promote the healing process and to suppress adverse immune reactions. Methods to investigate these adsorption processes are available, but it remains difficult to translate measurement results into actual protein binding events. Biosensor transducers allow user-friendly investigation of protein adsorption on different surfaces. The combination of several transduction principles leads to complementary results, allowing a more comprehensive characterization of the adsorbing layer. We introduce SAW resonators as a novel complementary tool for time-resolved conditioning film monitoring. SAW resonators were coated with polymers. The adsorption of the plasma proteins human serum albumin (HSA) and fibrinogen onto the polymer-coated surfaces were monitored. Frequency results were compared with quartz crystal microbalance (QCM) sensor measurements, which confirmed the suitability of the SAW resonators for this application. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Acoustic Waveguide Sensors)
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3933 KiB  
Article
Modeling of Acoustic Emission Signal Propagation in Waveguides
by Andreea-Manuela Zelenyak, Marvin A. Hamstad and Markus G. R. Sause
Sensors 2015, 15(5), 11805-11822; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150511805 - 21 May 2015
Cited by 57 | Viewed by 9774
Abstract
Acoustic emission (AE) testing is a widely used nondestructive testing (NDT) method to investigate material failure. When environmental conditions are harmful for the operation of the sensors, waveguides are typically mounted in between the inspected structure and the sensor. Such waveguides can be [...] Read more.
Acoustic emission (AE) testing is a widely used nondestructive testing (NDT) method to investigate material failure. When environmental conditions are harmful for the operation of the sensors, waveguides are typically mounted in between the inspected structure and the sensor. Such waveguides can be built from different materials or have different designs in accordance with the experimental needs. All these variations can cause changes in the acoustic emission signals in terms of modal conversion, additional attenuation or shift in frequency content. A finite element method (FEM) was used to model acoustic emission signal propagation in an aluminum plate with an attached waveguide and was validated against experimental data. The geometry of the waveguide is systematically changed by varying the radius and height to investigate the influence on the detected signals. Different waveguide materials were implemented and change of material properties as function of temperature were taken into account. Development of the option of modeling different waveguide options replaces the time consuming and expensive trial and error alternative of experiments. Thus, the aim of this research has important implications for those who use waveguides for AE testing. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Acoustic Waveguide Sensors)
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2230 KiB  
Article
Fusing Range Measurements from Ultrasonic Beacons and a Laser Range Finder for Localization of a Mobile Robot
by Nak Yong Ko and Tae-Yong Kuc
Sensors 2015, 15(5), 11050-11075; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150511050 - 11 May 2015
Cited by 35 | Viewed by 7434
Abstract
This paper proposes a method for mobile robot localization in a partially unknown indoor environment. The method fuses two types of range measurements: the range from the robot to the beacons measured by ultrasonic sensors and the range from the robot to the [...] Read more.
This paper proposes a method for mobile robot localization in a partially unknown indoor environment. The method fuses two types of range measurements: the range from the robot to the beacons measured by ultrasonic sensors and the range from the robot to the walls surrounding the robot measured by a laser range finder (LRF). For the fusion, the unscented Kalman filter (UKF) is utilized. Because finding the Jacobian matrix is not feasible for range measurement using an LRF, UKF has an advantage in this situation over the extended KF. The locations of the beacons and range data from the beacons are available, whereas the correspondence of the range data to the beacon is not given. Therefore, the proposed method also deals with the problem of data association to determine which beacon corresponds to the given range data. The proposed approach is evaluated using different sets of design parameter values and is compared with the method that uses only an LRF or ultrasonic beacons. Comparative analysis shows that even though ultrasonic beacons are sparsely populated, have a large error and have a slow update rate, they improve the localization performance when fused with the LRF measurement. In addition, proper adjustment of the UKF design parameters is crucial for full utilization of the UKF approach for sensor fusion. This study contributes to the derivation of a UKF-based design methodology to fuse two exteroceptive measurements that are complementary to each other in localization. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Acoustic Waveguide Sensors)
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1295 KiB  
Article
Enhanced Sensitive Love Wave Surface Acoustic Wave Sensor Designed for Immunoassay Formats
by Mihaela Puiu, Ana-Maria Gurban, Lucian Rotariu, Simona Brajnicov, Cristian Viespe and Camelia Bala
Sensors 2015, 15(5), 10511-10525; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150510511 - 5 May 2015
Cited by 31 | Viewed by 7557
Abstract
We report a Love wave surface acoustic wave (LW-SAW) immunosensor designed for the detection of high molecular weight targets in liquid samples, amenable also for low molecular targets in surface competition assays. We implemented a label-free interaction protocol similar to other surface plasmon [...] Read more.
We report a Love wave surface acoustic wave (LW-SAW) immunosensor designed for the detection of high molecular weight targets in liquid samples, amenable also for low molecular targets in surface competition assays. We implemented a label-free interaction protocol similar to other surface plasmon resonance bioassays having the advantage of requiring reduced time analysis. The fabricated LW-SAW sensor supports the detection of the target in the nanomolar range, and can be ultimately incorporated in portable devices, suitable for point-of-care testing (POCT) applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Acoustic Waveguide Sensors)
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3477 KiB  
Article
Optimization of Capacitive Acoustic Resonant Sensor Using Numerical Simulation and Design of Experiment
by Rubaiyet Iftekharul Haque, Christophe Loussert, Michelle Sergent, Patrick Benaben and Xavier Boddaert
Sensors 2015, 15(4), 8945-8967; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150408945 - 16 Apr 2015
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 7237
Abstract
Optimization of the acoustic resonant sensor requires a clear understanding of how the output responses of the sensor are affected by the variation of different factors. During this work, output responses of a capacitive acoustic transducer, such as membrane displacement, quality factor, and [...] Read more.
Optimization of the acoustic resonant sensor requires a clear understanding of how the output responses of the sensor are affected by the variation of different factors. During this work, output responses of a capacitive acoustic transducer, such as membrane displacement, quality factor, and capacitance variation, are considered to evaluate the sensor design. The six device parameters taken into consideration are membrane radius, backplate radius, cavity height, air gap, membrane tension, and membrane thickness. The effects of factors on the output responses of the transducer are investigated using an integrated methodology that combines numerical simulation and design of experiments (DOE). A series of numerical experiments are conducted to obtain output responses for different combinations of device parameters using finite element methods (FEM). Response surface method is used to identify the significant factors and to develop the empirical models for the output responses. Finally, these results are utilized to calculate the optimum device parameters using multi-criteria optimization with desirability function. Thereafter, the validating experiments are designed and deployed using the numerical simulation to crosscheck the responses. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Acoustic Waveguide Sensors)
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6133 KiB  
Article
A Survey on the Feasibility of Sound Classification on Wireless Sensor Nodes
by Etto L. Salomons and Paul J. M. Havinga
Sensors 2015, 15(4), 7462-7498; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150407462 - 26 Mar 2015
Cited by 14 | Viewed by 7192
Abstract
Wireless sensor networks are suitable to gain context awareness for indoor environments. As sound waves form a rich source of context information, equipping the nodes with microphones can be of great benefit. The algorithms to extract features from sound waves are often highly [...] Read more.
Wireless sensor networks are suitable to gain context awareness for indoor environments. As sound waves form a rich source of context information, equipping the nodes with microphones can be of great benefit. The algorithms to extract features from sound waves are often highly computationally intensive. This can be problematic as wireless nodes are usually restricted in resources. In order to be able to make a proper decision about which features to use, we survey how sound is used in the literature for global sound classification, age and gender classification, emotion recognition, person verification and identification and indoor and outdoor environmental sound classification. The results of the surveyed algorithms are compared with respect to accuracy and computational load. The accuracies are taken from the surveyed papers; the computational loads are determined by benchmarking the algorithms on an actual sensor node. We conclude that for indoor context awareness, the low-cost algorithms for feature extraction perform equally well as the more computationally-intensive variants. As the feature extraction still requires a large amount of processing time, we present four possible strategies to deal with this problem. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Acoustic Waveguide Sensors)
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1626 KiB  
Article
A Room Temperature Nitric Oxide Gas Sensor Based on a Copper-Ion-Doped Polyaniline/Tungsten Oxide Nanocomposite
by Shih-Han Wang, Chi-Yen Shen, Jian-Ming Su and Shiang-Wen Chang
Sensors 2015, 15(4), 7084-7095; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150407084 - 24 Mar 2015
Cited by 36 | Viewed by 8452
Abstract
The parts-per-billion-level nitric oxide (NO) gas sensing capability of a copper-ion-doped polyaniline/tungsten oxide nanocomposite (Cu2+/PANI/WO3) film coated on a Rayleigh surface acoustic wave device was investigated. The sensor developed in this study was sensitive to NO gas at room [...] Read more.
The parts-per-billion-level nitric oxide (NO) gas sensing capability of a copper-ion-doped polyaniline/tungsten oxide nanocomposite (Cu2+/PANI/WO3) film coated on a Rayleigh surface acoustic wave device was investigated. The sensor developed in this study was sensitive to NO gas at room temperature in dry nitrogen. The surface morphology, dopant distribution, and electric properties were characterized using scanning electron microscopy, energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy mapping, and Hall effect measurements, respectively. The Cu2+/PANI/WO3 film exhibited high NO gas sensitivity and selectivity as well as long-term stability. At 1 ppb of NO, a signal with a frequency shift of 4.3 ppm and a signal-to-noise ratio of 17 was observed. The sensor exhibited distinct selectivity toward NO gas with no substantial response to O2, NH3 and CO2 gases. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Acoustic Waveguide Sensors)
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1911 KiB  
Article
Broadband and High Sensitive Time-of-Flight Diffraction Ultrasonic Transducers Based on PMNT/Epoxy 1–3 Piezoelectric Composite
by Dongxu Liu, Qingwen Yue, Ji Deng, Di Lin, Xiaobing Li, Wenning Di, Xi'an Wang, Xiangyong Zhao and Haosu Luo
Sensors 2015, 15(3), 6807-6817; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150306807 - 19 Mar 2015
Cited by 31 | Viewed by 9028
Abstract
5–6 MHz PMNT/epoxy 1–3 composites were prepared by a modified dice-and-fill method. They exhibit excellent properties for ultrasonic transducer applications, such as ultrahigh thickness electromechanical coupling coefficient kt (85.7%), large piezoelectric coefficient d33 (1209 pC/N), and relatively low acoustic impedance Z [...] Read more.
5–6 MHz PMNT/epoxy 1–3 composites were prepared by a modified dice-and-fill method. They exhibit excellent properties for ultrasonic transducer applications, such as ultrahigh thickness electromechanical coupling coefficient kt (85.7%), large piezoelectric coefficient d33 (1209 pC/N), and relatively low acoustic impedance Z (1.82 × 107 kg/(m2·s)). Besides, two types of Time-of-Flight Diffraction (TOFD) ultrasonic transducers have been designed, fabricated, and characterized, which have different matching layer schemes with the acoustic impedance of 4.8 and 5.7 × 106 kg/(m2·s), respectively. In the detection on a backwall of 12.7 mm polystyrene, the former exhibits higher detectivity, the relative pulse-echo sensitivity and −6 dB relative bandwidth are −21.93 dB and 102.7%, respectively, while the later exhibits broader bandwidth, the relative pulse-echo sensitivity and −6 dB relative bandwidth are −24.08 dB and 117.3%, respectively. These TOFD ultrasonic transducers based on PMNT/epoxy 1–3 composite exhibit considerably improved performance over the commercial PZT/epoxy 1–3 composite TOFD ultrasonic transducer. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Acoustic Waveguide Sensors)
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2091 KiB  
Article
Development of a Hydrogen Gas Sensor Using a Double Saw Resonator System at Room Temperature
by Zainab Yunusa, Mohd Nizar Hamidon, Alyani Ismail, Maryam Mohd Isa, Mohd Hanif Yaacob, Saeed Rahmanian, Siti Azlida Ibrahim and Arafat A.A Shabaneh
Sensors 2015, 15(3), 4749-4765; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150304749 - 26 Feb 2015
Cited by 19 | Viewed by 7971
Abstract
A double SAW resonator system was developed as a novel method for gas sensing applications. The proposed system was investigated for hydrogen sensing. Commercial Surface Acoustic Wave (SAW) resonators with resonance frequencies of 433.92 MHz and 433.42 MHz were employed in the double [...] Read more.
A double SAW resonator system was developed as a novel method for gas sensing applications. The proposed system was investigated for hydrogen sensing. Commercial Surface Acoustic Wave (SAW) resonators with resonance frequencies of 433.92 MHz and 433.42 MHz were employed in the double SAW resonator system configuration. The advantages of using this configuration include its ability for remote measurements, and insensitivity to vibrations and other external disturbances. The sensitive layer is composed of functionalized multiwalled carbon nanotubes and polyaniline nanofibers which were deposited on pre-patterned platinum metal electrodes fabricated on a piezoelectric substrate. This was mounted into the DSAWR circuit and connected in parallel. The sensor response was measured as the difference between the resonance frequencies of the SAW resonators, which is a measure of the gas concentration. The sensor showed good response towards hydrogen with a minimum detection limit of 1%. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Acoustic Waveguide Sensors)
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2693 KiB  
Article
Monaural Sound Localization Based on Structure-Induced Acoustic Resonance
by Keonwook Kim and Youngwoong Kim
Sensors 2015, 15(2), 3872-3895; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150203872 - 6 Feb 2015
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 6507
Abstract
A physical structure such as a cylindrical pipe controls the propagated sound spectrum in a predictable way that can be used to localize the sound source. This paper designs a monaural sound localization system based on multiple pyramidal horns around a single microphone. [...] Read more.
A physical structure such as a cylindrical pipe controls the propagated sound spectrum in a predictable way that can be used to localize the sound source. This paper designs a monaural sound localization system based on multiple pyramidal horns around a single microphone. The acoustic resonance within the horn provides a periodicity in the spectral domain known as the fundamental frequency which is inversely proportional to the radial horn length. Once the system accurately estimates the fundamental frequency, the horn length and corresponding angle can be derived by the relationship. The modified Cepstrum algorithm is employed to evaluate the fundamental frequency. In an anechoic chamber, localization experiments over azimuthal configuration show that up to 61% of the proper signal is recognized correctly with 30% misfire. With a speculated detection threshold, the system estimates direction 52% in positive-to-positive and 34% in negative-to-positive decision rate, on average. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Acoustic Waveguide Sensors)
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2428 KiB  
Article
Analytical Study of the Propagation of Fast Longitudinal Modes along wz-BN/AlN Thin Acoustic Waveguides
by Cinzia Caliendo
Sensors 2015, 15(2), 2525-2537; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150202525 - 23 Jan 2015
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 5285
Abstract
The propagation of the fundamental symmetric Lamb mode S0 along wz-BN/AlN thin composite plates suitable for telecommunication and sensing applications is studied. The investigation of the acoustic field profile across the plate thickness revealed the presence of modes having longitudinal polarization, the [...] Read more.
The propagation of the fundamental symmetric Lamb mode S0 along wz-BN/AlN thin composite plates suitable for telecommunication and sensing applications is studied. The investigation of the acoustic field profile across the plate thickness revealed the presence of modes having longitudinal polarization, the Anisimkin Jr. plate modes (AMs), travelling at a phase velocity close to that of the wz-BN longitudinal bulk acoustic wave propagating in the same direction. The study of the S0 mode phase velocity and coupling coefficient (K2) dispersion curves, for different electrical boundary conditions, has shown that eight different coupling configurations are allowable that exhibit a K2 as high as about 4% and very high phase velocity (up to about 16,700 m/s). The effect of the thickness and material type of the metal floating electrode on the K2 dispersion curves has also been investigated, specifically addressing the design of an enhanced coupling device. The gravimetric sensitivity of the BN/AlN-based acoustic waveguides was then calculated for both the AMs and elliptically polarized S0 modes; the AM-based sensor velocity and attenuation shifts due to the viscosity of a surrounding liquid was theoretically predicted. The performed investigation suggests that wz-BN/AlN is a very promising substrate material suitable for developing GHz band devices with enhanced electroacoustic coupling efficiency and suitable for application in telecommunications and sensing fields. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Acoustic Waveguide Sensors)
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3337 KiB  
Article
Penetration Characteristics of Air, Carbon Dioxide and Helium Transverse Sonic Jets in Mach 5 Cross Flow
by Erinc Erdem, Konstantinos Kontis and Selvaraj Saravanan
Sensors 2014, 14(12), 23462-23489; https://doi.org/10.3390/s141223462 - 8 Dec 2014
Cited by 25 | Viewed by 8468
Abstract
An experimental investigation of sonic air, CO2 and Helium transverse jets in Mach 5 cross flow was carried out over a flat plate. The jet to freestream momentum flux ratio, J, was kept the same for all gases. The unsteady flow topology [...] Read more.
An experimental investigation of sonic air, CO2 and Helium transverse jets in Mach 5 cross flow was carried out over a flat plate. The jet to freestream momentum flux ratio, J, was kept the same for all gases. The unsteady flow topology was examined using high speed schlieren visualisation and PIV. Schlieren visualisation provided information regarding oscillating jet shear layer structures and bow shock, Mach disc and barrel shocks. Two-component PIV measurements at the centreline, provided information regarding jet penetration trajectories. Barrel shocks and Mach disc forming the jet boundary were visualised/quantified also jet penetration boundaries were determined. Even though J is kept the same for all gases, the penetration patterns were found to be remarkably different both at the nearfield and the farfield. Air and CO2 jet resulted similar nearfield and farfield penetration pattern whereas Helium jet spread minimal in the nearfield. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Acoustic Waveguide Sensors)
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1401 KiB  
Article
A Novel Wireless and Temperature-Compensated SAW Vibration Sensor
by Wen Wang, Xufeng Xue, Yangqing Huang and Xinlu Liu
Sensors 2014, 14(11), 20702-20712; https://doi.org/10.3390/s141120702 - 3 Nov 2014
Cited by 29 | Viewed by 7844
Abstract
A novel wireless and passive surface acoustic wave (SAW) based temperature-compensated vibration sensor utilizing a flexible Y-cut quartz cantilever beam with a relatively substantial proof mass and two one-port resonators is developed. One resonator acts as the sensing device adjacent to the clamped [...] Read more.
A novel wireless and passive surface acoustic wave (SAW) based temperature-compensated vibration sensor utilizing a flexible Y-cut quartz cantilever beam with a relatively substantial proof mass and two one-port resonators is developed. One resonator acts as the sensing device adjacent to the clamped end for maximum strain sensitivity, and the other one is used as the reference located on clamped end for temperature compensation for vibration sensor through the differential approach. Vibration directed to the proof mass flex the cantilever, inducing relative changes in the acoustic propagation characteristics of the SAW travelling along the sensing device, and generated output signal varies in frequency as a function of vibration. A theoretical mode using the Rayleigh method was established to determine the optimal dimensions of the cantilever beam. Coupling of Modes (COM) model was used to extract the optimal design parameters of the SAW devices prior to fabrication. The performance of the developed SAW sensor attached to an antenna towards applied vibration was evaluated wirelessly by using the precise vibration table, programmable incubator chamber, and reader unit. High vibration sensitivity of ~10.4 kHz/g, good temperature stability, and excellent linearity were observed in the wireless measurements. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Acoustic Waveguide Sensors)
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4701 KiB  
Article
An Efficient Algorithm Embedded in an Ultrasonic Visualization Technique for Damage Inspection Using the AE Sensor Excitation Method
by Yaolu Liu, Riu Goda, Kiyoshi Samata, Atsushi Kanda, Ning Hu, Jianyu Zhang, Huiming Ning and Liangke Wu
Sensors 2014, 14(11), 20439-20450; https://doi.org/10.3390/s141120439 - 29 Oct 2014
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 5312
Abstract
To improve the reliability of a Lamb wave visualization technique and to obtain more information about structural damages (e.g., size and shape), we put forward a new signal processing algorithm to identify damage more clearly in an inspection region. Since the kinetic energy [...] Read more.
To improve the reliability of a Lamb wave visualization technique and to obtain more information about structural damages (e.g., size and shape), we put forward a new signal processing algorithm to identify damage more clearly in an inspection region. Since the kinetic energy of material particles in a damaged area would suddenly change when ultrasonic waves encounter the damage, the new algorithm embedded in the wave visualization technique is aimed at monitoring the kinetic energy variations of all points in an inspection region to construct a damage diagnostic image. To validate the new algorithm, three kinds of surface damages on the center of aluminum plates, including two non-penetrative slits with different depths and a circular dent, were experimentally inspected. From the experimental results, it can be found that the new algorithm can remarkably enhance the quality of the diagnostic image, especially for some minor defects. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Acoustic Waveguide Sensors)
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