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A special issue of Sustainability (ISSN 2071-1050). This special issue belongs to the section "Energy Sustainability".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 September 2021) | Viewed by 53627

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Dr. Muhammad Imran

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Guest Editor

Department of Mechanical, Biomedical and Design Engineering, College of Engineering and Physical Sciences, Aston University, Birmingham B4 7ET, UK
Interests: thermal management; thermal energy storage/systems; computational fluid dynamics; sustainable environment
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

In order to achieve zero emission targets, it is imperative that renewable energy sources play a critical role in future energy systems. However, most renewable energy resources are intermittent in nature and depend on weather conditions. Therefore, the use of a single renewable energy system often leads to excessive system size due to the randomness and the intermittent nature of some renewable energy resources. This phenomenon increases the system capital cost and hinders system reliability. Consequently, hybrid renewable energy systems integrated with renewable energy resources and/or other energy sources (nonrenewable energy sources) and energy storage can be used to address these challenging and unavoidable obstacles. Optimal designs of energy systems become vital in such circumstances, which is always a challenging process where a number of technoeconomic and environmental aspects need to be considered. In this context, this Special issue aims to present a collection of research work that resolves the major barriers around the design, modeling, optimization, and technoeconomic assessment of hybrid energy systems from a practical implementation perspective. Themes include but are not limited to:

Case studies
Design methods
Optimization
Economic assessment
Energy storage
Forecasting
Multiyear analysis
Control
Microgrid

Dr. Muhammad Imran
Guest Editor

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Keywords

Biomass
Solar
Geothermal
Wind
Solar PV
Diesel
Hydro
Energy storage

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Published Papers (9 papers)

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Research

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24 pages, 1333 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Modeling of Combined Lead Fast Reactor and Concentrating Solar Power Supercritical Carbon Dioxide Cycles to Demonstrate Feasibility, Efficiency Gains, and Cost Reductions

by Brian T. White, Michael J. Wagner, Ty Neises, Cory Stansbury and Ben Lindley

Sustainability 2021, 13(22), 12428; https://doi.org/10.3390/su132212428 - 10 Nov 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1947

Abstract

Solar power has innate issues with weather, grid demand and time of day, which can be mitigated through use of thermal energy storage for concentrating solar power (CSP). Nuclear reactors, including lead-cooled fast reactors (LFRs), can adjust power output according to demand; but with high fixed costs and low operating costs, there may not be sufficient economic incentive to make this worthwhile. We investigate potential synergies through coupling CSP and LFR together in a single supercritical CO

_{2}

Brayton cycle and/or using the same thermal energy storage. Combining these cycles allows for the LFR to thermally charge the salt storage in the CSP cycle during low-demand periods to be dispatched when grid demand increases. The LFR/CSP coupling into one cycle is modeled to find the preferred location of the LFR heat exchanger, CSP heat exchanger, sCO

_{2}

-to-salt heat exchanger (C2S), turbines, and recuperators within the supercritical CO

_{2}

Brayton cycle. Three cycle configurations have been studied: two-cycle configuration, which uses CSP and LFR heat for dedicated turbocompressors, has the highest efficiencies but with less component synergies; a combined cycle with CSP and LFR heat sources in parallel is the simplest with the lowest efficiencies; and a combined cycle with separate high-temperature recuperators for both the CSP and LFR is a compromise between efficiency and component synergies. Additionally, four thermal energy storage charging techniques are studied: the turbine positioned before C2S, requiring a high LFR outlet temperature for viability; the turbine after the C2S, reducing turbine inlet temperature and therefore power; the turbine parallel to the C2S producing moderate efficiency; and a dedicated circulator loop. While all configurations have pros and cons, use of a single cycle offers component synergies with limited efficiency penalty. Using a turbine in parallel with the C2S heat exchanger is feasible but results in a low charging efficiency, while a dedicated circulator loop offers flexibility and near-perfect heat storage efficiency but increasing cost with additional cycle components. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Hybrid Energy System)

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16 pages, 3324 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Performance Assessment and Working Fluid Selection for Novel Integrated Vapor Compression Cycle and Organic Rankine Cycle for Ultra Low Grade Waste Heat Recovery

by Muhammad Asim, Faiza Kashif, Jamal Umer, Jahan Zeb Alvi, Muhammad Imran, Sheheryar Khan, Abdul Wasy Zia and Michael K. H. Leung

Sustainability 2021, 13(21), 11592; https://doi.org/10.3390/su132111592 - 20 Oct 2021

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2196

Abstract

This paper presents the performance assessment and working fluid selection for a novel integrated vapor compression cycle-organic Rankine cycle system (i-VCC-ORC), which recovers ultra-low-temperature waste heat rejected (50 °C) by the condenser of a vapor compression cycle (VCC). The analyses are carried out for a vapor compression cycle of a refrigeration capacity (heat input) of 35kW along with the component sizing of the organic Rankine cycle (ORC). The effects of the operational parameters on integrated system performance were investigated. The integrated system performance is estimated in terms of net COP, cycle thermal efficiency and exergy efficiency by completely utilizing and recovering the heat rejected by the condenser of the VCC system. R600a-R141b with COP_net (3.54) and ORC thermal efficiency (3.05%) is found to be the most suitable VCC-ORC working fluid pair. The integration of the vapor compression refrigeration cycle with the organic Rankine cycle increases the COP of the system by 12.5% as compared to the standalone COP of the vapor compression system. Moreover, the sensitivity analysis results show that there exists an optimum operating condition that maximizes the thermal performance of the integrated system. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Hybrid Energy System)

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17 pages, 17749 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Activation of Nano Kaolin Clay for Bio-Glycerol Conversion to a Valuable Fuel Additive

by Imtisal Zahid, Muhammad Ayoub, Bawadi Bin Abdullah, Muhammad Hamza Nazir, Zulqarnain, Mariam Ameen Kaimkhani and Farooq Sher

Sustainability 2021, 13(5), 2631; https://doi.org/10.3390/su13052631 - 1 Mar 2021

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 3536

Abstract

High production of biodiesel results in a surplus of glycerol as a byproduct that leads to a drastic decline in the glycerol price as well as overall biodiesel production. Alternative methods must be introduced for the economical process for biodiesel production via utilization of crude glycerol into valuable chemicals or fuel additives. This study introduces an ecofriendly process of solketal synthesis from glycerol and acetone in the presence of a novel metakaolin clay catalyst, which is a useful additive in biodiesel or gasoline, in order to enhance the octane number and to control the emissions. Moreover, kaolin clay catalysts are low cost, abundantly available, eco-friendly and one of the more promising applications for solketal synthesis. In this study, raw kaolin clay was activated with an easy acid activation technique, modification in physicochemical and textural properties were determined by using X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier Transform Infra-Red (FTIR) spectroscopy, Brunauer–Emmett–Teller (BET) and Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscope. Among all acid-treated catalysts, metakaolin K3 have shown best catalytic properties, high surface area and pore size after acid activation with 3.0 mol/dm³ at 98 °C for 3 h. Acetalization of glycerol with acetone carried out in the presence of an environmentally friendly and inexpensive novel metakaolin K3 catalyst. The maximum yield of solketal obtained was 84% at a temperature of 50 °C, acetone/glycerol molar ratio 6/1 and for 90 min with novel metakaolin clay catalyst. Effect of various parameters (time, temperature, acetone/glycerol molar ratio, catalyst loading) on the solketal yield and glycerol conversion was discussed in detail. This approach offers an effective way to transform glycerol into solketal—a desirable green chemical with future industrial applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Hybrid Energy System)

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22 pages, 9295 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Investigating Solid and Liquid Desiccant Dehumidification Options for Room Air-Conditioning and Drying Applications

by B. Kiran Naik, Mullapudi Joshi, Palanisamy Muthukumar, Muhammad Sultan, Takahiko Miyazaki, Redmond R. Shamshiri and Hadeed Ashraf

Sustainability 2020, 12(24), 10582; https://doi.org/10.3390/su122410582 - 17 Dec 2020

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 5556

Abstract

This study reports on the investigation of the performance of single and two-stage liquid and solid desiccant dehumidification systems and two-stage combined liquid and solid desiccant dehumidification systems with reference to humid climates. The research focus is on a dehumidification system capacity of 25 kW designed for room air conditioning application using the thermal models reported in the literature. RD-type silica gel and LiCl are used as solid and liquid desiccant materials, respectively. In this study, the application of proposed system for deep drying application is also explored. Condensation rate and moisture removal efficiency are chosen as performance parameters for room air conditioning application, whereas air outlet temperature is chosen as performance parameter for deep drying application. Further, for a given range of operating parameters, influences of air inlet humidity ratio, flow rate, and inlet temperature on performance parameters of the systems are investigated. In humid climatic conditions, it has been observed that a two-stage liquid desiccant dehumidification system is more effective for room air conditioning application, and two-stage solid desiccant dehumidification system is more suitable for deep drying application in the temperature range of 50 to 70 °C, while single-stage solid desiccant and two-stage combined liquid and solid desiccant dehumidification systems are more effective for low temperature, i.e., 30 to 50 °C deep drying application. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Hybrid Energy System)

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15 pages, 3445 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Steady-State Investigation of Carbon-Based Adsorbent–Adsorbate Pairs for Heat Transformation Application

by Faizan Shabir, Muhammad Sultan, Yasir Niaz, Muhammad Usman, Sobhy M. Ibrahim, Yongqiang Feng, Bukke Kiran Naik, Abdul Nasir and Imran Ali

Sustainability 2020, 12(17), 7040; https://doi.org/10.3390/su12177040 - 28 Aug 2020

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3762

Abstract

In this study, the ideal adsorption cycle behavior of eight activated carbon and refrigerant pairs is evaluated. The selected pairs are KOH6-PR/ethanol, WPT-AC/ethanol, Maxsorb-III/methanol, Maxsorb-III/CO₂, Maxsorb-III/n-butane, Maxsorb-III/R-134a, SAC-2/R32 and Maxsorb-III/R507a. The following cooling performance parameters are evaluated for all pairs: specific cooling energy (SCE), concentration difference (ΔW) and coefficient of performance (COP) of ideal adsorption cooling and refrigeration cycles. The evaporator temperatures for the applications of adsorption cooling and refrigeration are selected as 7 and −5 °C, respectively. It is found that the Maxsorb-III/methanol pair has shown the highest specific cooling energy and coefficient of performance in a wide range of desorption temperatures; i.e., for the adsorption cooling cycle it has SCE and COP of 639.83 kJ/kg and 0.803, respectively, with desorption temperatures of 80 °C. The KOH6-PR/ethanol and the WPT-AC/ethanol pairs also give good performances comparable to that of the Maxsorb-III/methanol pair. However, the SAC-2/R32 pair possesses a higher concentration difference than the Maxsorb-III/methanol, KOH6-PR/ethanol and WPT-AC/ethanol pairs but shows a lower performance. This is due to the lower isosteric heat of adsorption of SAC-2/R32 compared to these pairs. It is found that Maxsorb-III/methanol, KOH6-PR/ethanol and WPT-AC/ethanol are the most promising pairs for application in designing adsorption cooling and refrigeration systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Hybrid Energy System)

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27 pages, 1902 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Composite Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis for Optimization of Hybrid Renewable Energy Systems for Geopolitical Zones in Nigeria

by Michael O. Ukoba, Ogheneruona E. Diemuodeke, Mohammed Alghassab, Henry I. Njoku, Muhammad Imran and Zafar A. Khan

Sustainability 2020, 12(14), 5732; https://doi.org/10.3390/su12145732 - 16 Jul 2020

Cited by 28 | Viewed by 3822

Abstract

This paper presents eight hybrid renewable energy (RE) systems that are derived from solar, wind and biomass, with energy storage, to meet the energy demands of an average household in the six geopolitical zones of Nigeria. The resource assessments show that the solar insolation, wind speed (at 30 m hub height) and biomass in the country range, respectively, from 4.38–6.00 kWh/m²/day, 3.74 to 11.04 m/s and 5.709–15.80 kg/household/day. The HOMER software was used to obtain optimal configurations of the eight hybrid energy systems along the six geopolitical zones’ RE resources. The eight optimal systems were further subjected to a multi-criteria decision making (MCDM) analysis, which considers technical, economic, environmental and socio-cultural criteria. The TOPSIS-AHP composite procedure was adopted for the MCDM analysis in order to have more realistic criteria weighting factors. In all the eight techno-economic optimal system configurations considered, the biomass generator-solar PV-battery energy system (GPBES) was the best system for all the geopolitical zones. The best system has the potential of capturing carbon from the atmosphere, an attribute that is desirous for climate change mitigation. The cost of energy (COE) was seen to be within the range of 0.151–0.156 US$/kWh, which is competitive with the existing electricity cost from the national grid, average 0.131 US$/kWh. It is shown that the Federal Government of Nigeria favorable energy policy towards the adoption of biomass-to-electricity systems would make the proposed system very affordable to the rural households. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Hybrid Energy System)

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20 pages, 5216 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Optimal Distribution of Renewable Energy Systems Considering Aging and Long-Term Weather Effect in Net-Zero Energy Building Design

by Yuehong Lu, Mohammed Alghassab, Manuel S. Alvarez-Alvarado, Hasan Gunduz, Zafar A. Khan and Muhammad Imran

Sustainability 2020, 12(14), 5570; https://doi.org/10.3390/su12145570 - 10 Jul 2020

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2780

Abstract

Generation system interruptions in net-zero energy buildings (NZEBs) may result in missing the net-zero targets by a great margin. Consequently, it is significant to incorporate a realistic reliability model for renewable energy systems (RESs) that considers aging and long-term weather conditions. This study proposed a robust design optimization method that deals with the selection of RES to achieve NZEB. Different case studies were evaluated: 1. Deterministic approach; 2. Markov chain-based reliability without the aging effect; 3. Markov chain-based reliability with the aging effect. The results showed that the optimal sizes of RES, considering the aging effect, were much larger than the other two cases based on the annual energy balance. Moreover, the consideration of the aging effect on the reliability assessment of the generation system for NZEB opens a pathway for a more robust and economic design of RES. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Hybrid Energy System)

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28 pages, 3513 KiB

Open AccessReview

A Comprehensive Review on Oil Extraction and Biodiesel Production Technologies

by Zulqarnain, Muhammad Ayoub, Mohd Hizami Mohd Yusoff, Muhammad Hamza Nazir, Imtisal Zahid, Mariam Ameen, Farooq Sher, Dita Floresyona and Eduardus Budi Nursanto

Sustainability 2021, 13(2), 788; https://doi.org/10.3390/su13020788 - 15 Jan 2021

Cited by 105 | Viewed by 16879

Abstract

Dependence on fossil fuels for meeting the growing energy demand is damaging the world’s environment. There is a dire need to look for alternative fuels that are less potent to greenhouse gas emissions. Biofuels offer several advantages with less harmful effects on the environment. Biodiesel is synthesized from the organic wastes produced extensively like edible, non-edible, microbial, and waste oils. This study reviews the feasibility of the state-of-the-art feedstocks for sustainable biodiesel synthesis such as availability, and capacity to cover a significant proportion of fossil fuels. Biodiesel synthesized from oil crops, vegetable oils, and animal fats are the potential renewable carbon-neutral substitute to petroleum fuels. This study concludes that waste oils with higher oil content including waste cooking oil, waste palm oil, and algal oil are the most favorable feedstocks. The comparison of biodiesel production and parametric analysis is done critically, which is necessary to come up with the most appropriate feedstock for biodiesel synthesis. Since the critical comparison of feedstocks along with oil extraction and biodiesel production technologies has never been done before, this will help to direct future researchers to use more sustainable feedstocks for biodiesel synthesis. This study concluded that the use of third-generation feedstocks (wastes) is the most appropriate way for sustainable biodiesel production. The use of innovative costless oil extraction technologies including supercritical and microwave-assisted transesterification method is recommended for oil extraction. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Hybrid Energy System)

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35 pages, 2619 KiB

Open AccessReview

A Review of Electricity Demand Forecasting in Low and Middle Income Countries: The Demand Determinants and Horizons

by Aneeque A. Mir, Mohammed Alghassab, Kafait Ullah, Zafar A. Khan, Yuehong Lu and Muhammad Imran

Sustainability 2020, 12(15), 5931; https://doi.org/10.3390/su12155931 - 23 Jul 2020

Cited by 73 | Viewed by 11323

Abstract

With the globally increasing electricity demand, its related uncertainties are on the rise as well. Therefore, a deeper insight of load forecasting techniques for projecting future electricity demands becomes imperative for business entities and policy makers. The electricity demand is governed by a set of different variables or “electricity demand determinants”. These demand determinants depend on forecasting horizons (long term, medium term, and short term), the load aggregation level, climate, and socio-economic activities. In this paper, a review of different electricity demand forecasting methodologies is provided in the context of a group of low and middle income countries. The article presents a comprehensive literature review by tabulating the different demand determinants used in different countries and forecasting the trends and techniques used in these countries. A comparative review of these forecasting methodologies over different time horizons reveals that the time series modeling approach has been extensively used while forecasting for long and medium terms. For short term forecasts, artificial intelligence-based techniques remain prevalent in the literature. Furthermore, a comparative analysis of the demand determinants in these countries indicates a frequent use of determinants like the population, GDP, weather, and load data over different time horizons. Following the analysis, potential research gaps are identified, and recommendations are provided, accordingly. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Hybrid Energy System)

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