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Toxics
Special Issues
The Identification of Narcotic and Psychotropic Drugs
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The Identification of Narcotic and Psychotropic Drugs

A special issue of Toxics (ISSN 2305-6304). This special issue belongs to the section "Drugs Toxicity".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 31 December 2024 | Viewed by 5460

Special Issue Editors

Prof. Dr. Maria Pieri

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Guest Editor
Department of Advanced Biomedical Science, Legal Medicine Section, University of Naples “Federico II”, 80131 Naples, Italy
Interests: forensic toxicology; data acquisition; gender differences; proteomics; post-mortem analysis; drug abuse; psychoactive substances
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Pascale Basilicata

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Guest Editor
Department of Advanced Biomedical Science, Legal Medicine Section, University of Naples “Federico II”, 80131 Naples, Italy
Interests: drug abuse; data acquisition; gender differences; proteomics; post-mortem analysis; drug abuse; psychoactive substances

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Over the last decades, there has been a constant increase in the fields of interest of forensic toxicology, which has assumed a leading role, becoming one of the reference sciences for the elucidation of events of judicial interest. The need to reconcile the analytical problems (and relating to the qualitative/quantitative analysis of substances of abuse in complex biological matrices) with the judicial requirements (i.e., providing data that can be used as documentary evidence in the proceedings) makes the discipline unique among all the "analytical" sciences. Thus, the availability of validated procedures, the constant monitoring of the analytical performances through Quality Assurance Protocols, the availability of “in matrices” certified standards, and the analytical problems underlying the analysis of new psychoactive substances in blood and other biological fluids represent the challenges of modern Forensic Toxicology. The correct interpretation of the analytical data, especially to elucidate the extent of the impairment induced by a certain substance, as well as the “old” issues related to the correct interpretation of post-mortem data (given the impossibility of translating the therapeutic ranges defined “in vivo”), represent further areas of research and debate among scientists. Finally, the possibility of interacting with other disciplines (as proteomics and social sciences) allows for extending the concept of analytical data acquisition/interpretation beyond the classical limits of Forensic Toxicology, considering, for example, the influence of gender when interpreting the effect of a substance.

We are pleased to invite you to contribute to this Special Issue in Forensic Toxicology, which will be focused on problems related to data acquisition/interpretation, with particular interest on post-mortem data, new psychoactive substances, strategies for a propped impairment judgment, and application of proteomics to forensic toxicology. In this Special Issue, original research articles and reviews are perticularly welcomed.

I look forward to receiving your contributions.

Prof. Dr. Maria Pieri
Dr. Pascale Basilicata
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Toxics is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

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Published Papers (5 papers)

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Research

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15 pages, 3101 KiB  
Article
Fouling-Resistant Voltammetric Xylazine Sensors for Detection of the Street Drug “Tranq”
by Joyce E. Stern, Ann H. Wemple, Charles W. Sheppard, Arielle Vinnikov and Michael C. Leopold
Toxics 2024, 12(11), 791; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics12110791 - 30 Oct 2024
Viewed by 580
Abstract
As the opioid crisis continues to wreak havoc on a global scale, it is increasingly critical to develop methodologies to detect the most dangerous drugs such as fentanyl and its derivatives, which have orders of magnitude higher potency than morphine. The scientific challenge [...] Read more.
As the opioid crisis continues to wreak havoc on a global scale, it is increasingly critical to develop methodologies to detect the most dangerous drugs such as fentanyl and its derivatives, which have orders of magnitude higher potency than morphine. The scientific challenge for chemical detection of fentanyl and its derivatives is complicated by both the constantly increasing synthetic variations of the drug as well as the expanded use of adulterants. One tragically consequential example is the nocuous street drug known as “Tranq”, which combines fentanyl or a fentanyl derivative with the veterinary sedative Rompun®, chemically identified as xylazine (XYL). This pervasive street cocktail is exacerbating the already staggering number of fentanyl-related deaths as its acute toxicity poses a danger to medical first-responders and complicates their initial assessment and treatment options for overdose victims. Given the widespread use of XYL as an adulterant, an electrochemical XYL sensor capable of on-site operation by non-experts as a fast-screening tool is a notable goal. This work presents a voltammetry-based sensor featuring carbon electrodes modified with carboxylic-acid functionalized multi-walled carbon nanotubes layered with cyclodextrin and polyurethane membranes for sensitivity and selectivity enhancements. The sensor has critical and robust fouling resistance while providing sensitivity at 950 μA/mM∙cm2, a low limit of detection (~5 ppm), and the ability to detect XYL in the presence of fentanyl and/or other non-fentanyl stimulants like cocaine. The demonstrated sensor can be applied to promote public health with its ability to detect and indicate XYL in the presence of opioids, serving to protect drug-users, first responders, medical examiners, and on-site forensic investigators from exposure to these dangerous mixtures. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Identification of Narcotic and Psychotropic Drugs)
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18 pages, 814 KiB  
Article
Exploring Human Misuse and Abuse of Veterinary Drugs: A Descriptive Pharmacovigilance Analysis Utilising the Food and Drug Administration’s Adverse Events Reporting System (FAERS)
by Josie Dunn, Fabrizio Schifano, Ed Dudley and Amira Guirguis
Toxics 2024, 12(11), 777; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics12110777 - 25 Oct 2024
Viewed by 715
Abstract
Introduction: Evidence suggests an increasing misuse of veterinary medicines by humans. This study aims to analyse Adverse Events (AEs) associated with selected veterinary products using the Food and Drug Administration Adverse Events Reporting System (FAERS). Methods: A descriptive pharmacovigilance analysis was conducted on [...] Read more.
Introduction: Evidence suggests an increasing misuse of veterinary medicines by humans. This study aims to analyse Adverse Events (AEs) associated with selected veterinary products using the Food and Drug Administration Adverse Events Reporting System (FAERS). Methods: A descriptive pharmacovigilance analysis was conducted on AEs related to 21 drugs approved for human and/or animal use. Results: A total of 38,756 AEs, including 9566 fatalities, were identified. The United States reported the highest number of cases (13,532), followed by Canada (2869) and the United Kingdom (1400). Among the eight drugs licenced exclusively for animals, levamisole, pentobarbital, and xylazine were most frequently reported. Reports predominantly involved males (57%) from the 18–64 age group, with incidents related mainly to overdose, dependence, and multi-agent toxicities. Unmasking techniques revealed ‘intentional overdose’ as the primary reaction. Polysubstance use was evident in 90% of the drugs, with benzodiazepines/Z-drugs and opioids as common co-used classes. Conclusions: Veterinary medications are increasingly infiltrating the illicit drug market due to their pharmacological properties. This trend highlights the need for heightened vigilance and awareness to prevent further public health risks associated with the adulteration of illicit substances with veterinary products like xylazine and pentobarbital. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Identification of Narcotic and Psychotropic Drugs)
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13 pages, 1407 KiB  
Article
Evaluation of Spontaneous Overtime Methemoglobin Formation in Post-Mortem Blood Samples from Real Cases in Critical Storage Conditions
by Sara Gariglio, Maria Chiara David, Alessandro Mattia, Francesca Consalvo, Matteo Scopetti, Martina Padovano, Stefano D’Errico, Donato Morena, Paola Frati, Alessandro Santurro and Vittorio Fineschi
Toxics 2024, 12(9), 670; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics12090670 - 14 Sep 2024
Viewed by 648
Abstract
Nitrite/nitrate poisoning is an emerging problem, with an ongoing escalation of reported self-administration with suicidal intent in several countries. Nitrites toxicity mainly consists of their interaction with hemoglobin (Hb), causing its oxidization to methemoglobin (MetHb). In order to give support to the correct [...] Read more.
Nitrite/nitrate poisoning is an emerging problem, with an ongoing escalation of reported self-administration with suicidal intent in several countries. Nitrites toxicity mainly consists of their interaction with hemoglobin (Hb), causing its oxidization to methemoglobin (MetHb). In order to give support to the correct procedures for the analysis of these cases, this study aims to evaluate spontaneous sample degradation and consequent MetHb formation in the typical storage conditions of a forensic toxicology laboratory. Two different types of samples have been used in this study: the first stage of our study consisted of a retrospective analysis of blood samples obtained by judicial autopsies already stored in the toxicology laboratory, collected over four years (2018–2021), while the samples used for the second stage were appositely collected during judicial autopsies. The data obtained by the application of a derivative spectrophotometry method on these samples suggest that there seems not to be a maximum threshold for MetHb formation within which it is possible to state with a sufficient grade of certainty that the concentration of MetHb found is consistent with an ante-mortem formation and is not the result of an artifact due to sample degradation and storage conditions. On the other hand, the results suggest that MetHb formation depends on the time passed between sample collection and analysis, so that a tempestive sample processing, performed as soon as the samples are received in the laboratory, is crucial to obtain the maximum reliability and diagnostic values from the data when MetHb quantitation is necessary. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Identification of Narcotic and Psychotropic Drugs)
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13 pages, 1182 KiB  
Article
Recreational Drug Overdose—Clinical Value of Toxicological Analysis
by Tobias Zellner, Florian Eyer, Christian Rabe, Stefanie Geith, Bettina Haberl and Sabrina Schmoll
Toxics 2024, 12(9), 662; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics12090662 - 10 Sep 2024
Viewed by 1124
Abstract
Background: Toxicological analysis of patients with acute recreational drug poisoning can improve our understanding of substance use patterns, clinical symptoms, and improve treatment. Patient history alone may be incomplete or misleading. The objective was to assess the differences in patient history and analytical [...] Read more.
Background: Toxicological analysis of patients with acute recreational drug poisoning can improve our understanding of substance use patterns, clinical symptoms, and improve treatment. Patient history alone may be incomplete or misleading. The objective was to assess the differences in patient history and analytical results, to describe the clinical characteristics, implications and hospital management, and to describe the drug use pattern over time. Methods: A retrospective study including all patients admitted to our toxicology unit with recreational drug toxicity and analytical testing from October 2014 to December 2022. Results: 872 patients were included. Patient history revealed a median of one ingested substance class: opiates/opioids, benzodiazepines/Z-drugs, and Pregabalin were predominant. Urine analysis revealed a median of three ingested substance classes (p < 0.001). Benzodiazepines/Z-drugs, Pregabalin, and THC were severely underreported. Agitation and aggression, anxiety, hallucinations, and psychosis were frequent, associated with cocaine, cathinone/phenethylamine, and amphetamine/MDMA detection and required sedation. Coma was also frequent, associated with opiate/opioid, benzodiazepine/Z-drug, GBL/GHB, and Pregabalin detection and required intubation, and/or application of Naloxone and/or Flumazenil. Twelve patients arrived in cardiac arrest; all were positive for opiates/opioids. Four patients died: three with Benzodiazepines/Z-drugs, Pregabalin and opiates/opioids detected, one with cathinones/phenethylamines detected. While cathinones/phenethylamines and synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists were mainly detected between 2014–2016, detection decreased significantly between 2017–2022 after NPS legislation passed. Pregabalin detection increased. Conclusions: Patient history is inaccurate, and patients frequently underreport ingested drugs. Opiates and opioids are still the main cause of morbidity and mortality. Pregabalin is increasingly abused. NPS legislation effectively decreased cathinone/phenethylamine and synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonist overdoses. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Identification of Narcotic and Psychotropic Drugs)
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Review

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11 pages, 859 KiB  
Review
Ocular Surface Fluid: More than a Matrix
by Ivan Šoša
Toxics 2024, 12(7), 513; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics12070513 - 16 Jul 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1481
Abstract
Although the eye can be subjected to therapeutic manipulation, some of its structures are highly inaccessible. Thus, conventional therapeutic administration pathways, such as topical or systemic routes, usually show significant limitations in the form of low ocular penetration or the appearance of side [...] Read more.
Although the eye can be subjected to therapeutic manipulation, some of its structures are highly inaccessible. Thus, conventional therapeutic administration pathways, such as topical or systemic routes, usually show significant limitations in the form of low ocular penetration or the appearance of side effects linked to physiology, among others. The critical feature of many xenobiotics is the drug gradient from the concentrated tear reservoir to the relatively barren corneal and conjunctival epithelia, which forces a passive route of absorption. The same is true in the opposite direction, towards the ocular surface (OS). With the premise that tears can be regarded as equivalent to or a substitute for plasma, researchers may determine drug concentrations in the OS fluid. Within this framework, a survey of scholarly sources on the topic was conducted. It provided an overview of current knowledge, allowing the identification of relevant theories, methods, and gaps in the existing research that can be employed in subsequent research. OS fluid (tears particularly) has enormous potential as a source of biological material for external drug screening and as a biomarker of various systemic diseases. Given the numerous alternate matrices, knowledge of their properties is very important in selecting the most appropriate specimens in toxicological analyses. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Identification of Narcotic and Psychotropic Drugs)
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