Toxics

27 pages, 6214 KiB

Open AccessReview

The Role of Epigenetic Mechanisms in the Development of PM_2.5-Induced Cognitive Impairment

by Lishan Jiang, Mingxia Shao, Chao Song, Li Zhou, Wenke Nie, Hang Yu, Siqi Wang, Yongping Liu and Li Yu

Toxics 2025, 13(2), 119; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13020119 - 2 Feb 2025

Abstract

PM_2.5 is fine particulate matter with a diameter of less than 2.5 μm. Recent evidence has shown that exposure to PM_2.5 markedly elevates the risk of neurodegenerative diseases, neurodevelopmental disorders, and cardiovascular diseases, which may culminate in cognitive impairment. Nevertheless, the [...] Read more.

PM_2.5 is fine particulate matter with a diameter of less than 2.5 μm. Recent evidence has shown that exposure to PM_2.5 markedly elevates the risk of neurodegenerative diseases, neurodevelopmental disorders, and cardiovascular diseases, which may culminate in cognitive impairment. Nevertheless, the precise mechanisms through which PM_2.5 affects cognitive function are unclear. Recent studies have demonstrated that PM_2.5-induced epigenetic alterations are associated with the development of cognitive impairment. Epigenetic alterations include modifications to DNA methylation, histone modifications, and non-coding RNAs. The underlying mechanisms of epigenetic alterations are related to inflammation, synaptic dysfunction, cardiovascular factors, and alterations in neuronal structure and function. This review reports the latest findings on the relationship between PM_2.5-induced epigenetic alterations and the development of cognitive disorders, offering novel insights into the cognitive effects of air pollution. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neuronal Injury and Disease Induced by Environmental Toxicants)

20 pages, 2213 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comprehensive Cross-Sectional Study of the Triglyceride Glucose Index, Organophosphate Pesticide Exposure, and Cardiovascular Diseases: A Machine Learning Integrated Approach

by Xuehai Wang, Mengxin Tian, Zengxu Shen, Kai Tian, Yue Fei, Yulan Cheng, Jialing Ruan, Siyi Mo, Jingjing Dai, Weiyi Xia, Mengna Jiang, Xinyuan Zhao, Jinfeng Zhu and Jing Xiao

Toxics 2025, 13(2), 118; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13020118 - 1 Feb 2025

Abstract

Using NHANES data from 2003 to 2008, 2011 to 2012, and 2015 to 2020, we examined the relationship between urinary organophosphate pesticide (OPP) metabolites and the triglyceride glucose (TyG) index. The TyG index evaluates insulin resistance, a crucial factor in metabolic diseases. Linear [...] Read more.

Using NHANES data from 2003 to 2008, 2011 to 2012, and 2015 to 2020, we examined the relationship between urinary organophosphate pesticide (OPP) metabolites and the triglyceride glucose (TyG) index. The TyG index evaluates insulin resistance, a crucial factor in metabolic diseases. Linear regression analyzed urinary metabolites in relation to the TyG index and OPPs. An RCS (restricted cubic spline) model explored the nonlinear relationship of a single OPP metabolite to TyG. A weighted quantile regression and quantile-based g-computation assessed the impact of combined OPP exposure on the TyG index. XGBoost, Random Forest, Support Vector Machines, logistic regression, and SHapley Additive exPlanations models investigated the impact of OPPs on the TyG index and cardiovascular disease. Network toxicology identified CVD targets associated with OPPs. This study included 4429 participants based on specific criteria. Linear regression analysis indicated that diethyl thiophosphate was positively correlated with the TyG index. The positive correlation between OPP metabolites and the TyG index at low to moderate concentrations was confirmed by WQS and QGC analyses. The machine learning results aligned with traditional statistical findings. Network toxicology identified PTGS3, PPARG, HSP40AA1, and CXCL8 as targets influenced by OPPs. OPP exposure influences IR and cardiometabolic health, highlighting the importance of public health prevention. Full article

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17 pages, 1562 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Ozone Exposure and Gestational Diabetes in Twin Pregnancies: Exploring Critical Windows and Synergistic Risks

by Anda Zhao, Yuanqing Xia, Ruoyu Lu, Wenhui Kang, Lili Huang, Renyi Hua, Shuping Lyu, Yan Zhao, Jianyu Chen, Yanlin Wang and Shenghui Li

Toxics 2025, 13(2), 117; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13020117 - 1 Feb 2025

Abstract

The relationship between ozone (O₃) exposure and gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) in twin pregnancies remains unexplored. This study aimed to investigate the association between O₃ exposure and GDM risk in twin pregnancies, and to explore the synergistic effects of O [...] Read more.

The relationship between ozone (O₃) exposure and gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) in twin pregnancies remains unexplored. This study aimed to investigate the association between O₃ exposure and GDM risk in twin pregnancies, and to explore the synergistic effects of O₃ exposure with other maternal factors. A total of 428 pregnancies recruited from a prospective twin cohort were included. Cox proportional hazard models with distributed lag non-linear models (DLNMs) were applied to examine the associations between O₃ exposure and the risk of GDM and to identify the critical windows. The multiplicative and additive interaction were further analyzed to test the synergistic effects. A 10 μg/m³ increase in average O₃ exposure during the 12 weeks before pregnancy was associated with a 26% higher risk of GDM. The critical windows were identified in the period from the 3rd week before gestation to the 2nd gestational week as well as from the 17th to 19th gestational week. There were synergistic effects between high O₃ exposure during preconception and advanced maternal age, and a history of preterm birth/abortion/stillbirth. Periconceptional O₃ exposure could increase the risk of GDM in twin pregnancy women, and the synergism of O₃ exposure with certain GDM risk factors was observed. Full article

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24 pages, 1210 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Per- and Poly-Fluoroalkyl Substances, and Organophosphate Flame Retardants in the Upper Yangtze River: Occurrence, Spatiotemporal Distribution, and Risk Assessment

by Wen Sun, Zhiyou Fu, Yueyue Liu, Yingchen Bai, Yuyan Zhao, Chen Wang and Fengchang Wu

Toxics 2025, 13(2), 116; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13020116 - 1 Feb 2025

Abstract

Contaminants of Emerging Concern (CECs), including per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) and organophosphate flame retardants (OPFRs), have raised global concerns due to their persistence, bioaccumulation potential, and toxicity. This study presents a comprehensive investigation of the occurrence, spatiotemporal distribution, potential sources, and the [...] Read more.

Contaminants of Emerging Concern (CECs), including per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) and organophosphate flame retardants (OPFRs), have raised global concerns due to their persistence, bioaccumulation potential, and toxicity. This study presents a comprehensive investigation of the occurrence, spatiotemporal distribution, potential sources, and the ecological and human health risks associated with 18 PFASs and 9 OPFRs in the surface waters of the upper Yangtze River, China. The water samples were collected from the main stream and five major tributaries (Min, Jinsha, Tuo, Jialing, and Wu Rivers) in 2022 and 2023. The total concentration of PFASs and OPFRs ranged from 16.07 to 927.19 ng/L, and 17.36 to 190.42 ng/L, respectively, with a consistently higher concentration observed in the main stream compared to the tributaries. Ultra-short-chain PFASs (e.g., TFMS) and halogenated OPFRs (e.g., TCPP) were the predominant compounds, likely originating from industrial discharges, wastewater effluents, and other anthropogenic sources. Ecological risk assessments indicated low-to-moderate risks at most sampling sites, with higher risks near wastewater discharge points. Human health risk evaluations suggested negligible non-carcinogenic risks but identified potential carcinogenic risks from OPFR exposure for adults at specific locations, particularly in Leshan city. This study highlights the importance of understanding the fate and impacts of PFASs and OPFRs in the upper Yangtze River, and provides valuable insights for developing targeted pollution control strategies and risk management measures. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Occurrence and Environmental Risks of Organic Pollutants in Aquatic Environment)

11 pages, 209 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Ethephon Poisoning: Clinical Characteristics and Outcomes

by Satariya Trakulsrichai, Kanokrat Chuayaupakarn, Phantakan Tansuwannarat, Panee Rittilert, Achara Tongpoo, Charuwan Sriapha and Winai Wananukul

Toxics 2025, 13(2), 115; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13020115 - 31 Jan 2025

Abstract

Ethephon (2-chloroethylphosphonic acid) is a generally used plant growth regulator, but the data on its toxic effects, especially in humans, are very limited. This study was conducted to describe the clinical characteristics, management, and outcomes of patients exposed to products containing ethephon. We [...] Read more.

Ethephon (2-chloroethylphosphonic acid) is a generally used plant growth regulator, but the data on its toxic effects, especially in humans, are very limited. This study was conducted to describe the clinical characteristics, management, and outcomes of patients exposed to products containing ethephon. We performed an 8-year retrospective study using data from the Ramathibodi Poison Center database (2013–2020), which included 252 patients. Most patients were male, with a median age of 32 years. Almost all patients were exposed through ingestion, mainly in unintentional circumstances. The clinical presentations included local effects, gastrointestinal (GI), neurological, and respiratory symptoms. Some patients required hospital admission; specifically, seven patients received inotropic drugs, and six were intubated with ventilator support. Most patients had either no or only minor clinical effects. However, six patients experienced moderate/severe effects, and two patients died. Age, intentional exposure, and the presence of initial neurological symptoms could prognosticate moderate to fatal outcomes. In conclusion, exposure to ethephon predominantly resulted in no or minor effects, and GI symptoms were the most common clinical manifestation. The cholinergic toxic syndrome was not frequently observed. The mortality rate was very low. Patients presenting with factors associated with worse outcomes should be monitored closely for clinical deterioration and appropriately managed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Drug Metabolism and Toxicological Mechanisms)

22 pages, 2953 KiB

Open AccessSystematic Review

Epigenetic Biomarkers Driven by Environmental Toxins Associated with Alzheimer’s Disease, Parkinson’s Disease, and Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis in the United States: A Systematic Review

by Melanie Engstrom Newell, Anumitha Aravindan, Ayesha Babbrah and Rolf U. Halden

Toxics 2025, 13(2), 114; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13020114 - 31 Jan 2025

Abstract

Environmental toxins and epigenetic changes have been linked to neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer’s Disease (AD), Parkinson’s Disease (PD), and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). This paper aimed to (i) identify environmental toxins associated with AD, PD, and ALS, (ii) locate potential industrial sources of [...] Read more.

Environmental toxins and epigenetic changes have been linked to neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer’s Disease (AD), Parkinson’s Disease (PD), and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). This paper aimed to (i) identify environmental toxins associated with AD, PD, and ALS, (ii) locate potential industrial sources of toxins in the United States (U.S.), and (iii) assess epigenetic changes driven by exposure to toxins reported by patients. Environmental factors and epigenetic biomarkers of neurodegeneration were compiled from 69 studies in the literature using Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta Analyses (PRISMA) and geographic information system approaches. Some 127 environmental toxins have been associated or putatively associated with AD, PD, or ALS, with four toxic metals (As, Cd, Mn, and Hg) common to all three of these neurodegenerative diseases. Environmental toxins associated with epigenetic changes (e.g., DNA methylation) in patients include air pollutants, metals, and organic chemicals (e.g., pesticides, mycotoxins, and cyanotoxins). Geographic analysis showed that study locations (e.g., U.S., Europe, and East Asia) were selected by researchers based on convenience of access rather than exposure risk and disease prevalence. We conclude that several toxins and epigenetic markers shared among neurodegenerative diseases could serve as attractive future targets guiding environmental quality improvements and aiding in early disease detection. Full article

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13 pages, 644 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Influence of Different Protocols on the Application of the Dithiothreitol Assay in Determining the Oxidative Potential of Ambient Particles

by Maja Jovanović, Marija Živković, Bojana Petrović, Saima Iram, Milena Jovašević-Stojanović and Svetlana Stevanović

Toxics 2025, 13(2), 113; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13020113 - 30 Jan 2025

Abstract

Environmental particulate matter (PM) exposure has been widely recognized for its significant adverse effects on human health. Monitoring PM levels is one of the essential parameters of air quality assessment. However, PM mass concentration alone does not sufficiently explain its toxicological impacts and [...] Read more.

Environmental particulate matter (PM) exposure has been widely recognized for its significant adverse effects on human health. Monitoring PM levels is one of the essential parameters of air quality assessment. However, PM mass concentration alone does not sufficiently explain its toxicological impacts and effects on health. This study highlights the importance of oxidative potential (OP) as a promising metric for evaluating PM toxicity. It focuses on standardizing the dithiothreitol (DTT) assay as a tool for OP measurement. In order to investigate the impact of various extraction techniques, reagent concentrations, and assay conditions, four previously established protocols were tested without modification, while a novel protocol was introduced based on an extensive literature review. Results revealed strong positive correlations between the new and most established protocols. These findings highlight the significance of the new protocol in advancing the development of standardized methodologies for applying the DTT assay and demonstrating its reliability and relevance. While developing a standardized DTT assay involves addressing numerous parameters—from filter extraction to assay application—this research provides a solid base for achieving consistency in OP measurements and overcoming this critical issue. Full article

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11 pages, 2280 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Apigenin Induces Apoptosis and Inhibits Migration in Human Cholangiocarcinoma Cells

by Mayurachat Kaewmanee, Temduang Limpaiboon and Nipaporn Ngernyuang

Toxics 2025, 13(2), 112; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13020112 - 30 Jan 2025

Abstract

Cholangiocarcinoma (CCA) is a rare and highly aggressive cancer of the biliary tract, associated with poor clinical outcomes due to late diagnosis, extensive metastasis, drug resistance, and limited treatment options. Apigenin, a natural flavonoid, has been found to exhibit anticancer properties in several [...] Read more.

Cholangiocarcinoma (CCA) is a rare and highly aggressive cancer of the biliary tract, associated with poor clinical outcomes due to late diagnosis, extensive metastasis, drug resistance, and limited treatment options. Apigenin, a natural flavonoid, has been found to exhibit anticancer properties in several types of human cancer cells. Therefore, apigenin may be relevant to developing chemotherapeutic agents for cancer treatment. In this study, we examined the effects of apigenin on cell viability, cell cycle distribution, apoptosis, and cell migration in human CCA cell lines (KKU-M055) under in vitro conditions. The results demonstrate that apigenin significantly suppressed specific CCA cell proliferation by inducing cell cycle arrest at the G2/M phase and promoting cell apoptosis in KKU-M055 cells while exhibiting low toxicity in immortalized MMNK1 cells. Apigenin enhanced apoptotic features, including nuclear fragmentation and the loss of mitochondrial membrane potential. Furthermore, apigenin induced the apoptosis of KKU-M055 cells in both extrinsic and intrinsic pathways by activating caspase-8, -9, and -3/7. Moreover, apigenin inhibited KKU-M055 migration. Our study suggests apigenin as a promising candidate for treating CCA, and these findings provide theoretical support for the further development and potential application of apigenin in clinical CCA therapy. Full article

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31 pages, 1158 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Protective Effects of Resveratrol Against Perfluorooctanoic Acid-Induced Testicular and Epididymal Toxicity in Adult Rats Exposed During Their Prepubertal Period

by R. Pavani, K. Venkaiah, P. Gnana Prakasam, Vijaya R. Dirisala, P. Gopi Krishna, B. Kishori and S. B. Sainath

Toxics 2025, 13(2), 111; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13020111 - 29 Jan 2025

Abstract

The antioxidant properties of resveratrol (RES) against oxidative toxicity induced by testicular toxicants are well documented. The current study aimed to investigate the probable beneficial role of RES on male reproduction in adult rats following prepubertal exposure to perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA). Healthy rats [...] Read more.

The antioxidant properties of resveratrol (RES) against oxidative toxicity induced by testicular toxicants are well documented. The current study aimed to investigate the probable beneficial role of RES on male reproduction in adult rats following prepubertal exposure to perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA). Healthy rats of the Wistar strain (23 days old) were allocated into four groups. Rats in group I did not receive any treatment, while rats in groups II, III, and IV received RES, PFOA, and RES + PFOA, respectively, between days 23 and 56 and were monitored for up to 90 days. Exposure to PFOA resulted in a significant reduction in spermiogram parameters, testicular 3β- and 17β-HSD activity levels, and circulatory levels of testosterone. A significant elevation in LPx, PCs, H₂O₂, and O₂⁻, associated with a concomitant reduction in SOD, CAT, GPx, GR, and GSH, was noticed in the testes, as well as region-specific changes in pro- and antioxidants in the epididymides of exposed rats compared to controls. A significant increase in serum FSH and LH, testicular cholesterol levels, and caspase-3 activity was observed in PFOA-exposed rats compared to controls. Histological analysis revealed that the integrity of the testes was deteriorated in PFOA-exposed rats. Transcriptomic profiling of the testes and epididymides revealed 98 and 611 altered genes, respectively. In the testes, apoptosis and glutathione pathways were disrupted, while in the epididymides, glutathione and bile secretion pathways were altered in PFOA-exposed rats. PFOA exposure resulted in the down-regulation in the testes of 17β-HSD, StAR, nfe2l2, ar, Lhcgr, and mRNA levels, associated with the up-regulation of casp3 mRNA, and down-regulation of alpha 1 adrenoceptor, muscarinic choline receptor 3, and androgen receptor in the epididymides of exposed rats compared to the controls. These events might lead to male infertility in PFOA-exposed rats. In contrast, restoration of selected reproductive variables was observed in RES plus PFOA-exposed rats compared to rats exposed to PFOA alone. Taken together, we postulate that prepubertal exposure to PFOA triggered oxidative damage and altered genes in the testes and epididymides, leading to suppressed male reproductive health in adult rats, while RES, with its steroidogenic, antiapoptotic, and antioxidant effects, restored PFOA-induced fertility potential in rats. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Human Exposure to per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFASs): Toxicity, Health Effects, and Mitigation)

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12 pages, 938 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Next Generation Risk Assessment to Address Disease-Related Vulnerability—A Proof of Concept for the Sunscreen Octocrylene

by María-Elena Fernández-Martín and Jose V. Tarazona

Toxics 2025, 13(2), 110; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13020110 - 29 Jan 2025

Abstract

Risk assessment for cosmetics in the European Union (EU) are triggered by a ban on animal testing and concerns of endocrine disruption (ED). The risk assessment focuses on healthy populations and, for potential ED, includes specific developmental stages as vulnerable due to specific [...] Read more.

Risk assessment for cosmetics in the European Union (EU) are triggered by a ban on animal testing and concerns of endocrine disruption (ED). The risk assessment focuses on healthy populations and, for potential ED, includes specific developmental stages as vulnerable due to specific concerns on endocrine effects. However, the assessment focuses on healthy individuals and does not consider that some pathologies may increase dermal absorption and even vulnerability to endocrine disruptors. Data from the EU risk assessment, human pharmacokinetic studies and ToxCast bioactivity were combined in a hypothesis-driven Next-Generation Risk Assessment to identify possible risk drivers for vulnerable populations including oncological patients and atopic dermatitis. In vitro effects are observed at concentration in the order of measured plasmatic levels under normal use patterns. The induction of hepatic enzymes is the most relevant bioactivity endpoint, in line with animal findings. The information on endocrine potential is inconclusive, and the possibility for skin effects and endocrine mechanism linked to tumor induction require further elucidation. The information on octocrylene (CAS number: 6197-30-4) bioactivity is limited, lacking information on the metabolites and the immunotoxicity potential, particularly relevant for oncological patients. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Exposome Analysis and Risk Assessment)

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20 pages, 2282 KiB

Open AccessReview

Contamination Characterization, Toxicological Properties, and Health Risk Assessment of Bisphenols in Multiple Media: Current Research Status and Future Perspectives

by Fangyun Long, Yanqin Ren, Fang Bi, Zhenhai Wu, Haijie Zhang, Junling Li, Rui Gao, Zhengyang Liu and Hong Li

Toxics 2025, 13(2), 109; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13020109 - 29 Jan 2025

Abstract

Bisphenols (BPs) are ubiquitous environmental endocrine disruptors that cause various human health hazards and pollute water, soil, and the atmosphere to varying degrees. Although various studies have investigated the pollution characteristics and health hazards of BPs in different media, a systematic review of [...] Read more.

Bisphenols (BPs) are ubiquitous environmental endocrine disruptors that cause various human health hazards and pollute water, soil, and the atmosphere to varying degrees. Although various studies have investigated the pollution characteristics and health hazards of BPs in different media, a systematic review of BPs in the broader environmental context is still lacking. This study highlights the pollution characteristics, detection methods, and risk assessment status of BPs by combining relevant studies from both domestic and international sources, and their environmental distribution characteristics are summarized. The results show that BP pollution is a widespread and complex global phenomenon. Bisphenol A (BPA) remains the predominant component of BPs, which can damage the nervous and reproductive systems. At present, high-performance liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry, high-performance liquid chromatography, and liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry are the main detection methods used for BPs. BPs can also damage the reproductive system, leading to germ cell apoptosis and ovarian damage. Future research should focus on expanding the BP testing repertoire, advancing rapid detection techniques, elucidating toxic mechanisms, conducting comprehensive safety assessments, and developing systematic health risk assessment methods. These efforts will provide a scientific foundation for preventing and controlling emerging pollutants. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Source and Components Analysis of Aerosols in Air Pollution)

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20 pages, 3800 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Copper-Induced Neurodegenerative Disorders and Therapeutic Potential of Curcumin-Loaded Nanoemulsion

by Govind Hake, Akshada Mhaske, Rahul Shukla and Swaran Jeet Singh Flora

Toxics 2025, 13(2), 108; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13020108 - 29 Jan 2025

Abstract

Copper accumulation in neurons induces oxidative stress, disrupts mitochondrial activity, and accelerates neuronal death, which is central to the pathophysiology of neurodegenerative diseases like Wilson disease. Standard treatments for copper toxicity, such as D-penicillamine, trientine, and chloroquine, are frequently associated with severe side [...] Read more.

Copper accumulation in neurons induces oxidative stress, disrupts mitochondrial activity, and accelerates neuronal death, which is central to the pathophysiology of neurodegenerative diseases like Wilson disease. Standard treatments for copper toxicity, such as D-penicillamine, trientine, and chloroquine, are frequently associated with severe side effects, creating a need for safer therapeutic alternatives. To address this, we developed a curcumin-loaded nanoemulsion (CUR-NE) using the spontaneous emulsification technique, aimed at enhancing the bioavailability and therapeutic efficacy of curcumin. The optimized nanoemulsion displayed a particle size of 76.42 nm, a zeta potential of −20.4 mV, and a high encapsulation efficiency of 93.69%, with a stable and uniform structure. The in vitro tests on SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells demonstrated that CUR-NE effectively protected against copper-induced toxicity, promoting significant cellular uptake. Pharmacokinetic studies revealed that CUR-NE exhibited a longer half-life and extended circulation time compared to free curcumin. Additionally, pharmacodynamic evaluations, including biochemical assays and histopathological analysis, confirmed that CUR-NE provided superior neuroprotection in copper overload conditions. These results emphasize the ability of CUR-NE to augment the therapeutic effects of curcumin, presenting a novel approach for managing copper-induced neurodegeneration. The study highlights the effectiveness of nanoemulsion-based delivery platforms in improving chelation treatments for neurological diseases. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Heavy Metal Contamination and Its Effects on Ecosystems and Human Health: Challenges and Solutions)

22 pages, 959 KiB

Open AccessReview

Red Mud as an Adsorbent for Hazardous Metal Ions: Trends in Utilization

by Maja Rajković, Ivana Jelić, Marija Janković, Dragi Antonijević and Marija Šljivić-Ivanović

Toxics 2025, 13(2), 107; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13020107 - 28 Jan 2025

Abstract

The increasing importance of waste materials utilization with the necessary modification to remove various pollutants from industrial wastewater has been a research focus over the past few decades. Using waste material from one industry to solve pollution problems in another ultimately leads toward [...] Read more.

The increasing importance of waste materials utilization with the necessary modification to remove various pollutants from industrial wastewater has been a research focus over the past few decades. Using waste material from one industry to solve pollution problems in another ultimately leads toward sustainable and circular approaches in environmental engineering, solving waste management and wastewater treatment issues simultaneously. In contemporary research and industry, there is a notable trend toward utilizing industrial wastes as precursors for adsorbent formation with a wide application range. In line with this trend, red mud, a byproduct generated during alumina production, is increasingly viewed as a material with the potential for beneficial reuse rather than strictly a waste. One of the potential uses of red mud, due to its specific composition, is in the removal of heavy metal and radionuclide ions. This study summarizes red mud’s potential as an adsorbent for wastewater treatment, emphasizing techno-economic analysis and sorption capacities. An overview of the existing research includes a critical evaluation of the adsorption performance, factors influencing efficiency rather than efficacy, and the potential for specific pollutant adsorption from aqueous solutions. This review provides a new approach to a circular economy implementation in wastewater treatment while guiding future research directions for sustainable and cost-effective solutions. Full article

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15 pages, 1108 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Air, Skin, and Biological Monitoring of French Fire Instructors’ Exposure to Particles/PAHs During Controlled Fire and Mitigation Strategies

by Pauline Zangl, Clément Collart and Renaud Persoons

Toxics 2025, 13(2), 106; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13020106 - 28 Jan 2025

Abstract

Occupational exposure as a firefighter was recently classified as carcinogenic to humans by the IARC. Fire instructors’ exposure to carcinogenic PAHs is a major concern, and studies that have tried to assess the determinants of their exposure are scarce. An air and biomonitoring [...] Read more.

Occupational exposure as a firefighter was recently classified as carcinogenic to humans by the IARC. Fire instructors’ exposure to carcinogenic PAHs is a major concern, and studies that have tried to assess the determinants of their exposure are scarce. An air and biomonitoring study was conducted in fire instructors performing simulated training exercises in enclosed containers. Air samples were collected, as well as urine samples from 22 firefighting instructors, and skin wipes were collected from FFs’ skin at the end of the exercises. PAH metabolites (1-hydroxypyrene, 3-hydroxybenzo(a)pyrene, 2/3-hydroxyfluorene, and 2/3-hydroxyphenanthrene) were measured in urine samples at three sampling times (beginning of shift, end of shift, and next morning). Airborne PAHs were dominated by low molecular weight compounds (naphthalene), and levels were as high as 67 µg·m⁻³ close to the containers, decreasing at higher distances. Skin contamination was observed both on the neck/face and hands/wrists of fire instructors and pilots. Ten times lower skin contamination was observed when nitrile undergloves were worn. High internal exposure was measured, with 1-hydroxypyrene and 3-hydroxybenzo(a)pyrene levels frequently exceeding maximum recommended values in occupational settings (up to 2.8 µmol/mol creatinine for 1-OHP, 14 µmol/mol creatinine for SOH-PAH, and 1.0 nmol/mol creatinine for 3-OHBaP), whereas benzene exposure was revealed to be very low. These types of exposure were found to derive both from dermal absorption (combustion products deposited on the skin) and inhalation (when removing SCBA outside the containers). Several recommendations are proposed in order to reduce both exposure routes (nitrile undergloves and half-masks in the vicinity of containers), harmonise decontamination (PPEs) and cleaning procedures, and prevent the dermal absorption of PAH from turnout gear. This study emphasises the complex PAH exposure profiles of fire instructors and characterises the main drivers of exposure, highlighting the need for better mitigation strategies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Firefighters’ Occupational Exposures and Health Risks)

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12 pages, 2220 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Significance of Morphology in Characterizing Human Health Risk from di(2-ethylhexyl) Phthalate in Polyvinyl Chloride Microplastics in Groundwater

by Ki-Han Song, Sang-Gyu Yoon, Jin-Yong Lee and Jinsung An

Toxics 2025, 13(2), 105; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13020105 - 28 Jan 2025

Abstract

In this study, a human health risk assessment was performed on the ingestion route of groundwater containing polyvinyl chloride (PVC) microplastics (MPs), and the carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic risks of di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), a representative additive, were determined. In particular, the impact of volume [...] Read more.

In this study, a human health risk assessment was performed on the ingestion route of groundwater containing polyvinyl chloride (PVC) microplastics (MPs), and the carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic risks of di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), a representative additive, were determined. In particular, the impact of volume diversity according to the shape (morphology) of PVC MP (fragment, fiber, film) on the risk characterization was intensively explored. Firstly, a continuous particle size distribution following a power function was derived using the abundance ratio of PVC MPs by size in the investigated groundwater, and human health risk assessment for DEHP in the PVC MPs was performed through the volume distribution according to the shape of MPs. DEHP human health risk assessment showed an excess cancer risk (ECR) of below 10⁻⁶ for a 95% cumulative probability for all MP shapes, but the values varied depending on the shape. Sensitivity analysis showed that the parameter that most affected human health risk was MP volume, second to concentration, which is dependent on MP shape. Therefore, it is necessary to consider the variety of MP shapes during human health risk assessment, and it can be achieved through probabilistic risk assessment utilizing the probability distribution for size and shape of MPs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exposure and Toxicity of Emerging Organic Pollutants in Environment and Human)

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16 pages, 494 KiB

Open AccessSystematic Review

New Methodologies and Techniques for Biomonitoring Pesticide Exposure in Agricultural Workers: A Systematic Review

by Andreia Moreira, Joana Guedes and Manuela Vieira da Silva

Toxics 2025, 13(2), 104; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13020104 - 28 Jan 2025

Abstract

Biomonitoring allows for the assessment of internal exposure to various pesticides and metabolites. Following PRISMA guidelines, this systematic review aims to summarise innovative biomonitoring techniques for assessing pesticide exposure in agricultural workers, their advantages and limitations, and their applicability. The search of the [...] Read more.

Biomonitoring allows for the assessment of internal exposure to various pesticides and metabolites. Following PRISMA guidelines, this systematic review aims to summarise innovative biomonitoring techniques for assessing pesticide exposure in agricultural workers, their advantages and limitations, and their applicability. The search of the Medline/PubMed, ScienceDirect, Scopus, and Web of Science databases identified 14 articles dealing with new techniques for biomonitoring pesticide exposure in agricultural workers. These new methodologies have identified several biomarkers associated with exposure to organophosphates. Most of the included studies combine and/or improve traditional methods to overcome their limitations. This leads to more sensitive, specific, and precise techniques with lower detection and quantification limits. Therefore, it is necessary to thoroughly analyse and test new biomonitoring methods for assessing pesticide exposure. These techniques can complement qualitative risk assessments and aid in developing strategies to protect public health and the environment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pesticide Risk Assessment, Emerging and Re-Emerging Problems)

13 pages, 1330 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Element Levels in Feathers of Atlantic Puffins (Fratercula arctica) in Iceland: Establishing Background Levels in an Arctic Migratory Species

by Joanna Burger, Erpur Snær Hansen, Kelly Ng and Michael Gochfeld

Toxics 2025, 13(2), 103; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13020103 - 28 Jan 2025

Abstract

Examining contaminant concentrations in birds in Arctic environments is important for managing species for assessing long-term trends. Recent reports on mercury (Hg) concentrations in Arctic species of seabirds has identified a need for data from missing regions or species. We measured arsenic (As), [...] Read more.

Examining contaminant concentrations in birds in Arctic environments is important for managing species for assessing long-term trends. Recent reports on mercury (Hg) concentrations in Arctic species of seabirds has identified a need for data from missing regions or species. We measured arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr), lead (Pb), manganese (Mn), Hg and selenium (Se) in the body feathers of Atlantic Puffin (Fratercula arctica) from four colonies in Iceland in 2011 and one in 2009. Puffins forage on small fish at an intermediate trophic concentration. We found that (1) concentrations examined in the colony in 2009 were lower than in 2011 for all metals except As and Hg, and (2) concentrations of Cd and Se varied significantly among colonies for feathers collected in 2011. Pb concentrations in Puffin feathers in one colony were 14-fold higher in 2009 than in 2011 (mean of 805 ng.g⁻¹ vs. 58 ng.g⁻¹). The highest mean Hg concentration in 2011 was 362 ng.g⁻¹ and was 4880 ng.g⁻¹ for Se. The concentrations of Hg in the Atlantic Puffins reported in this study were similar to, or lower than those reported for the same species elsewhere and for Tufted Puffin from the Pacific. Full article

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16 pages, 1686 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Trace Detection of Di-Isopropyl Methyl Phosphonate DIMP, a By-Product, Precursor, and Simulant of Sarin, Using Either Ion Mobility Spectrometry or GC-MS

by Victor Bocoș-Bințințan, Paul-Flaviu Bocoș-Bințințan, Tomáš Rozsypal and Mihail Simion Beldean-Galea

Toxics 2025, 13(2), 102; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13020102 - 28 Jan 2025

Abstract

Di-isopropyl methyl phosphonate (DIMP) has no major commercial uses but is a by-product or a precursor in the synthesis of the nerve agent sarin (GB). Also, DIMP is utilized as a simulant compound for the chemical warfare agents sarin and soman in order [...] Read more.

Di-isopropyl methyl phosphonate (DIMP) has no major commercial uses but is a by-product or a precursor in the synthesis of the nerve agent sarin (GB). Also, DIMP is utilized as a simulant compound for the chemical warfare agents sarin and soman in order to test and calibrate sensitive IMS instrumentation that warns against the deadly chemical weapons. DIMP was measured from 2 ppb_v (15 μg m⁻³) to 500 ppb_v in the air using a pocket-held ToF ion mobility spectrometer, model LCD-3.2E, with a non-radioactive ionization source and ammonia doping in positive ion mode. Excellent sensitivity (LoD of 0.24 ppb_v and LoQ of 0.80 ppb_v) was noticed; the linear response was up to 10 ppb_v, while saturation occurred at >500 ppb_v. DIMP identification by IMS relies on the formation of two distinct peaks: the monomer M·NH₄⁺, with a reduced ion mobility K₀ = 1.41 cm² V⁻¹ s⁻¹, and the dimer M₂·NH₄⁺, with K₀ = 1.04 cm² V⁻¹ s⁻¹ (where M is the DIMP molecule); positive reactant ions (Pos RIP) have K₀ = 2.31 cm² V⁻¹ s⁻¹. Quantification of DIMP at trace levels was also achieved by GC-MS over the concentration range of 1.5 to 150 μg mL⁻¹; using a capillary column (30 m × 0.25 mm × 0.25 μm) with a TG-5 SilMS stationary phase and temperature programming from 60 to 110 °C, DIMP retention time (RT) was ca. 8.5 min. The lowest amount of DIMP measured by GC-MS was 1.5 ng, with an LoD of 0.21 μg mL⁻¹ and an LoQ of 0.62 μg mL⁻¹ DIMP. Our results demonstrate that these methods provide robust tools for both on-site and off-site detection and quantification of DIMP at trace levels, a finding which has significant implications for forensic investigations of chemical agent use and for environmental monitoring of contamination by organophosphorus compounds. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Drugs Toxicity)

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11 pages, 611 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Temporal Changes in Lead and Cadmium Levels in Amanita muscaria Samples Collected in Poland

by Michal Ordak, Aleksandra Galazka, Pawel Konieczynski, Marek Wesolowski, Alina Plenis, Elzbieta Muszynska, Przemyslaw Kurowski and Magdalena Bujalska-Zadrozny

Toxics 2025, 13(2), 101; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13020101 - 27 Jan 2025

Abstract

In recent years, an increasing popularity of consuming Amanita muscaria has been observed in Poland, aimed at reducing various medical symptoms. However, there is a lack of data regarding the impact of variations in the content of toxic elements, such as cadmium (Cd) [...] Read more.

In recent years, an increasing popularity of consuming Amanita muscaria has been observed in Poland, aimed at reducing various medical symptoms. However, there is a lack of data regarding the impact of variations in the content of toxic elements, such as cadmium (Cd) and lead (Pb), in Amanita muscaria collected during late summer and mid-fall. The aim of this study was to determine the concentrations of Pb and Cd in Amanita muscaria samples collected at different times of the year, compare the concentrations of these elements in samples with and without cap skin, and compare the obtained values to permissible limits in dietary supplements. A total of 44 Amanita muscaria samples were collected during three different harvesting periods (August, September, and October 2023) from Puszcza Biała, located approximately 80 km from Warsaw. The mushrooms were subjected to mineralization using concentrated nitric acid and hydrogen peroxide, followed by the determination of Pb and Cd concentrations using an atomic absorption spectrometer. Significant statistical differences were found in the Pb concentrations of samples collected in three different seasons (η² = 0.67, p < 0.001), with the concentration increasing progressively, reaching its highest value in October. Similarly, the Cd concentration also increased in the later collections, although the effect of time was weaker (η² = 0.13, p = 0.03). No significant differences were observed in Pb and Cd concentrations between samples with and without cap skin. The average Cd concentrations in mushrooms were significantly higher than the permissible levels in dietary supplements; they were four times higher in August (p < 0.001), six times higher in September (p < 0.001), and nine times higher in October (p < 0.001). The Pb concentration in the October samples was close to the permissible limit but did not exceed it in a statistically significant manner (p = 0.85). Due to the high Cd concentrations and potentially hazardous levels of Pb, the consumption of Amanita muscaria carries a significant risk of toxicity, which may lead to serious health hazards, particularly in the context of prolonged exposure. Full article

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