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Water Supply System Reliability, Safety and Risk Modelling & Assessment, Volume II

A special issue of Water (ISSN 2073-4441). This special issue belongs to the section "Urban Water Management".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (15 October 2024) | Viewed by 18479

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Katarzyna Pietrucha-Urbanik

E-Mail Website1 Website2
Guest Editor
Department of Water Supply and Sewerage Systems, Faculty of Civil, Environmental Engineering and Architecture, Rzeszow University of Technology, 35-959 Rzeszow, Poland
Interests: reliability and safety of municipal systems; water supply systems; water network; risk analysis connected with water supply systems operation; safety of water supply consumers; failure risk analysis; reliability-based risk assessment
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Prof. Dr. Janusz Rak

E-Mail Website1 Website2
Guest Editor
Department of Water Supply and Sewerage Systems, Faculty of Civil, Environmental Engineering and Architecture, Rzeszow University of Technology, 35-959 Rzeszow, Poland
Interests: critical infrastructure; reliability and safety; water supply systems; consumers; failure; risk analysis; reliability-based risk assessment
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The reliability and safety of engineering systems represent permanent scientific and operational issues. They become even more pressing issues if these engineering systems belong to critical infrastructures. A water supply system is a critical infrastructure in modern societies. The first mission of a WSS is to provide households with potable water in the required quantity, at the appropriate pressure, and on demand, as required by statutory regulations. The risk assessment is primarily focused on supply disruption risk (shortage or deficit) and their impacts on the environment, consumer health, and the global security of the city. An examination of the current operational state, potential major threats, and related hazards should be part of every risk assessment. The proposed approaches aim to address a wide spectrum of the issues concerning WSS reliability, safety and risk modelling, and assessment.

Dr. Katarzyna Pietrucha-Urbanik
Prof. Dr. Janusz Rak
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Water is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • hazard identification
  • matrix
  • manage drinking water supply safety
  • risk analysis
  • risk and vulnerability assessment
  • safety
  • water safety plans
  • water supply systems
  • water demand modeling
  • water supply systems
  • water network failure analysis
  • water losses
  • innovative methodologies
  • water quality monitoring
  • techniques and technology for smart water systems
  • optimal network design
  • water distribution networks
  • contamination
  • water–energy nexus
  • water quality
  • failure risk analysis
  • prediction models
  • the rehabilitation of water distribution networks
  • reliability-based risk assessment
  • risk assessment methodology
  • the safety of water supply systems

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Published Papers (10 papers)

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Research

19 pages, 7807 KiB  
Article
Harnessing Risks with Data: A Leakage Assessment Framework for WDN Using Multi-Attention Mechanisms and Conditional GAN-Based Data Balancing
by Wenhong Wu, Jiahao Zhang, Yunkai Kang, Zhengju Tang, Xinyu Pan and Ning Liu
Water 2024, 16(22), 3329; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16223329 - 19 Nov 2024
Viewed by 320
Abstract
Assessing leakage risks in water distribution networks (WDNs) and implementing preventive monitoring for high-risk pipelines has become a widely accepted approach for leakage control. However, existing methods face significant data barriers between Geographic Information System (GIS) and leakage prediction systems. These barriers hinder [...] Read more.
Assessing leakage risks in water distribution networks (WDNs) and implementing preventive monitoring for high-risk pipelines has become a widely accepted approach for leakage control. However, existing methods face significant data barriers between Geographic Information System (GIS) and leakage prediction systems. These barriers hinder traditional pipeline risk assessment methods, particularly when addressing challenges such as data imbalance, poor model interpretability, and lack of intuitive prediction results. To overcome these limitations, this study proposes a leakage assessment framework for water distribution networks based on multiple attention mechanisms and a generative model-based data balancing method. Extensive comparative experiments were conducted using water distribution network data from B2 and B3 District Metered Areas in Zhengzhou. The results show that the proposed model, optimized with a balanced data method, achieved a 40.76% improvement in the recall rate for leakage segment assessments, outperforming the second-best model using the same strategy by 1.7%. Furthermore, the strategy effectively enhanced the performance of all models, further proving that incorporating more valid data contributes to improved assessment results. This study comprehensively demonstrates the application of data-driven models in the field of “smart water management”, providing practical guidance and reference cases for advancing the development of intelligent water infrastructure. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Supply System Reliability, Safety and Risk Modelling & Assessment, Volume II)
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20 pages, 2430 KiB  
Article
Optimal Design of Water Distribution System Using Improved Life Cycle Energy Analysis: Development of Optimal Improvement Period and Unit Energy Formula
by Yong min Ryu and Eui Hoon Lee
Water 2024, 16(22), 3300; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16223300 - 17 Nov 2024
Viewed by 395
Abstract
Water distribution systems (WDSs) are crucial for providing clean drinking water, requiring an efficient design to minimize costs and energy usage. This study introduces an enhanced life cycle energy analysis (LCEA) model for an optimal WDS design, incorporating novel criteria for pipe maintenance [...] Read more.
Water distribution systems (WDSs) are crucial for providing clean drinking water, requiring an efficient design to minimize costs and energy usage. This study introduces an enhanced life cycle energy analysis (LCEA) model for an optimal WDS design, incorporating novel criteria for pipe maintenance and a new resilience index based on nodal pressure. The improved LCEA model features a revised unit energy formula and sets standards for pipe rehabilitation and replacement based on regional regulations. Applied to South Korea’s Goyang network, the model reduces energy expenditure by approximately 35% compared to the cost-based design. Unlike the cost-based design, the energy-based design achieves results that can relatively reduce energy when designing water distribution networks by considering recovered energy. This allows designers to propose designs that consume relatively less energy. Analysis using the new resilience index shows that the energy-based design outperforms the cost-based design in terms of pressure and service under most pipe failure scenarios. The implementation of the improved LCEA in real-world pipe networks, including Goyang, promises a practical life cycle-based optimal design. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Supply System Reliability, Safety and Risk Modelling & Assessment, Volume II)
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27 pages, 6930 KiB  
Article
Improvement of Removal Rates for Iron and Manganese in Groundwater Using Dual-Media Filters Filled with Manganese-Oxide-Coated Sand and Ceramic in Nepal
by Ankit Man Shrestha, Shinobu Kazama, Benyapa Sawangjang and Satoshi Takizawa
Water 2024, 16(17), 2450; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16172450 - 29 Aug 2024
Viewed by 1194
Abstract
Iron and manganese in groundwater impair the quality of drinking water; however, the rates of iron and manganese removal with conventional aeration and rapid sand filtration (RSF) processes vary extensively. Five full-scale aeration–RSF processes in Nepal also showed varying efficiencies of iron and [...] Read more.
Iron and manganese in groundwater impair the quality of drinking water; however, the rates of iron and manganese removal with conventional aeration and rapid sand filtration (RSF) processes vary extensively. Five full-scale aeration–RSF processes in Nepal also showed varying efficiencies of iron and manganese removal; while the iron concentration was below the national standard (0.30 mg/L) in 31 out of the 37 treated waters, the manganese concentration was higher than the standard (0.20 mg/L) in all of the treated waters. Re-aeration and stirring of the treated water did not oxidize soluble manganese, and this caused the poor removal rates for manganese. Bench-scale dual-media filters comprising anthracite on top of sand/ceramic layers with dosages of poly aluminum chloride and chlorine worked well by removing coagulated iron in the anthracite layer and then removing manganese in the sand/ceramic layers. A manganese-oxide-coated ceramic filter provided the highest manganese removal from 1.10 mg/L to <0.01 mg/L, followed by manganese-oxide-coated sand and quartz sand. Increasing the pH from 7.5 to 9.0 stabilized the manganese removal. Therefore, we propose a re-design of the present treatment processes and the selection of suitable filter media for better removal of iron and manganese. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Supply System Reliability, Safety and Risk Modelling & Assessment, Volume II)
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Graphical abstract

16 pages, 2430 KiB  
Article
Assessment of Human Errors in the Operation of the Water Treatment Plant
by Jakub Żywiec, Barbara Tchórzewska-Cieślak and Kateryna Sokolan
Water 2024, 16(17), 2399; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16172399 - 26 Aug 2024
Viewed by 714
Abstract
The water supply system (WSS) is an anthropotechnical system whose reliability depends on proper human activity. Research indicates that 75% of WSS failures are due to human errors. The water treatment plant (WTP) is a key element of the WSS. The water treatment [...] Read more.
The water supply system (WSS) is an anthropotechnical system whose reliability depends on proper human activity. Research indicates that 75% of WSS failures are due to human errors. The water treatment plant (WTP) is a key element of the WSS. The water treatment process requires human control as the operator. His task is to maintain an appropriate level of reliability and safety for the system by controlling the technological objects. The aim of the work was to assess the reliability of the WTP operator. The paper presents a Human Reliability Assessment (HRA) of the operator of the WTP using the Fuzzy-Bayes CREAM method. The values of the Human Error Probability (HEP) for operators were determined, which are key to carrying out further analyses of the human impact on the reliability and operational safety of anthropotechnical critical infrastructure systems. The HEP value of the water treatment plant operator varies in the range of 0.0005–0.0746 (depending on the technological process). Identification of new threats related to the impact of the human factor on the WSS’s functioning and taking them into account in reliability calculations will allow for a better representation of actual operating conditions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Supply System Reliability, Safety and Risk Modelling & Assessment, Volume II)
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22 pages, 6171 KiB  
Article
Causes and Effects of Scale Deposition in Water Supply Pipelines in Surakarta City, Indonesia
by Saiful Amin, Shinobu Kazama, Benyapa Sawangjang and Satoshi Takizawa
Water 2024, 16(16), 2275; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16162275 - 12 Aug 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1471
Abstract
Globally, scale deposition in water supply pipelines is one of the major problems faced by water utilities. This research aimed to determine the causes and effects of scale deposition in the water supply pipelines in Surakarta City, Indonesia. The total dissolved solids (TDS), [...] Read more.
Globally, scale deposition in water supply pipelines is one of the major problems faced by water utilities. This research aimed to determine the causes and effects of scale deposition in the water supply pipelines in Surakarta City, Indonesia. The total dissolved solids (TDS), hardness, manganese, and alkalinity in groundwater were higher than those in the surface water and spring water; thus, the supply areas from groundwater were identified using TDS at the taps. The three scaling indicators, i.e., the Langelier saturation index (LSI), the Ryznar stability index (RSI), and the Puckorius scaling index (PSI), indicated moderate calcium carbonate scaling. However, elemental analysis of eight scale samples using X-ray fluorescence (XRF) revealed that the major components of scale were either manganese (50.1–80.8%) or iron (45.6–63.8%), whereas calcium (3.0–7.8%) was a minor component. Because only five of twenty groundwater sources were chlorinated before distribution, it is estimated that dissolved manganese is oxidized by manganese-oxidizing bacteria. The manganese deposition rate in the networks was estimated to be 1660 kg/year using the manganese concentration at groundwater sources and in customers’ taps. These results suggest the importance of the elemental analysis of scale and avoidance of overreliance on scale indicators. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Supply System Reliability, Safety and Risk Modelling & Assessment, Volume II)
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14 pages, 3556 KiB  
Article
To Feel the Spatial: Graph Neural Network-Based Method for Leakage Risk Assessment in Water Distribution Networks
by Wenhong Wu, Xinyu Pan, Yunkai Kang, Yuexia Xu and Liwei Han
Water 2024, 16(14), 2017; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16142017 - 16 Jul 2024
Viewed by 1020
Abstract
As water distribution networks expand, evaluating pipeline network leakage risk has become increasingly crucial. Contrary to traditional evaluation methods, which are often hampered by subjective weight assignment, data scarcity, and high expenses, data-driven models provide advantages like autonomous weight learning, comprehensive coverage, and [...] Read more.
As water distribution networks expand, evaluating pipeline network leakage risk has become increasingly crucial. Contrary to traditional evaluation methods, which are often hampered by subjective weight assignment, data scarcity, and high expenses, data-driven models provide advantages like autonomous weight learning, comprehensive coverage, and cost-efficiency. This study introduces a data-driven framework leveraging graph neural networks to assess leakage risk in water distribution networks. Employing geographic information system (GIS) data from a central Chinese city, encompassing pipeline network details and historical repair records, the model achieved superior performance compared to other data-driven approaches, evidenced by metrics such as precision, accuracy, recall, and the Matthews correlation coefficient. Further analysis of risk factors underscores the importance of factors like pipe age, material, prior failures, and length. This approach demonstrates robust predictive accuracy and offers significant reference value for leakage risk evaluation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Supply System Reliability, Safety and Risk Modelling & Assessment, Volume II)
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12 pages, 505 KiB  
Article
Case Study for Predicting Failures in Water Supply Networks Using Neural Networks
by Viviano de Sousa Medeiros, Moisés Dantas dos Santos and Alisson Vasconcelos Brito
Water 2024, 16(10), 1455; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16101455 - 20 May 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1197
Abstract
This study deals with the prediction of recurring failures in water supply networks, a complex and costly task, but essential for the effective maintenance of these vital infrastructures. Using historical failure data provided by Companhia de Água e Esgotos da Paraíba (CAGEPA), the [...] Read more.
This study deals with the prediction of recurring failures in water supply networks, a complex and costly task, but essential for the effective maintenance of these vital infrastructures. Using historical failure data provided by Companhia de Água e Esgotos da Paraíba (CAGEPA), the research focuses on predicting the time until the next failure at specific points in the network. The authors divided the failures into two categories: Occurrences of New Faults (ONFs) and Recurrences of Faults (RFs). To perform the predictions, they used predictive models based on machine learning, more specifically on MLP (Multi-Layer Perceptron) neural networks. The investigation unveiled that through the analysis of historical failure data and the consideration of variables including altitude, number of failures on the same street, and days between failures, it is possible to achieve an accuracy greater than 80% in predicting failures within a 90-day interval. This demonstrates the feasibility of using fault history to predict future water supply outages with significant accuracy. These forecasts allow water utilities to plan and optimize their maintenance, minimizing inconvenience and losses. The article contributes significantly to the field of water infrastructure management by proposing the applicability of a data-driven approach in diverse urban settings and across various types of infrastructure networks, including those pertaining to energy or communication. These conclusions underscore the paramount importance of systematic data collection and analysis in both averting failures and optimizing the allocation of resources within water utilities. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Supply System Reliability, Safety and Risk Modelling & Assessment, Volume II)
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13 pages, 2655 KiB  
Article
A Novel IoT-Based Performance Testing Method and System for Fire Pumps
by Shangcong Zhang, Yongfang Li, Xuefei Chen, Ruyi Zhou, Ziran Wu and Taha Zarhmouti
Water 2024, 16(5), 792; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16050792 - 6 Mar 2024
Viewed by 1598
Abstract
Fire pumps are the key components of water supply in a firefighting system. At present, there is a lack of fire water pump testing methods that intelligently detect faulty states. Existing testing approaches require manual operation, which leads to low efficiency and accuracy. [...] Read more.
Fire pumps are the key components of water supply in a firefighting system. At present, there is a lack of fire water pump testing methods that intelligently detect faulty states. Existing testing approaches require manual operation, which leads to low efficiency and accuracy. To solve the issue, this paper presents an automatic and smart testing approach that acquires measurements of the flow, pressure, shaft power and efficiency from smart sensors via an IoT network, so that performance curves are obtained in the testing processes. An IoT platform is developed for data conversion, transmission and storage. The Discrete Fréchet Distance is applied to evaluate the similarities between the acquired performance curves and metric performance curves, to determine the working condition of the fire pump. The weights of the measurement dimensions for distance computation are optimized by the Genetic Algorithm to improve the distinction between normal and faulty performance curves. Finally, the experimental results show that the proposed method can completely detect faulty states and prove its high practicality for real firefighting systems. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Supply System Reliability, Safety and Risk Modelling & Assessment, Volume II)
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39 pages, 7476 KiB  
Article
Evaluating the Effectiveness of Coagulation–Flocculation Treatment Using Aluminum Sulfate on a Polluted Surface Water Source: A Year-Long Study
by Hichem Tahraoui, Selma Toumi, Meriem Boudoukhani, Nabil Touzout, Asma Nour El Houda Sid, Abdeltif Amrane, Abd-Elmouneïm Belhadj, Mohamed Hadjadj, Yacine Laichi, Mohamed Aboumustapha, Mohammed Kebir, Abdellah Bouguettoucha, Derradji Chebli, Aymen Amin Assadi and Jie Zhang
Water 2024, 16(3), 400; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16030400 - 25 Jan 2024
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 6842
Abstract
Safeguarding drinking water is a major public health and environmental concern because it is essential to human life but may contain pollutants that can cause illness or harm the environment. Therefore, continuous research is necessary to improve water treatment methods and guarantee its [...] Read more.
Safeguarding drinking water is a major public health and environmental concern because it is essential to human life but may contain pollutants that can cause illness or harm the environment. Therefore, continuous research is necessary to improve water treatment methods and guarantee its quality. As part of this study, the effectiveness of coagulation–flocculation treatment using aluminum sulfate (Al2(SO4)3) was evaluated on a very polluted site. Samplings were taken almost every day for a month from the polluted site, and the samples were characterized by several physicochemical properties, such as hydrogen potential (pH), electrical conductivity, turbidity, organic matter, ammonium (NH+4), phosphate (PO43−), nitrate (NO3−), nitrite (NO2−), calcium (Ca2+), magnesium (Mg2+), total hardness (TH), chloride (Cl−), bicarbonate (HCO3−), sulfate (SO42−), iron (Fe3+), manganese (Mn2+), aluminum (Al3+), potassium (K+), sodium (Na+), complete alkalimetric titration (TAC), and dry residue (DR). Then, these samples were treated with Al2(SO4)3 using the jar test method, which is a common method to determine the optimal amount of coagulant to add to the water based on its physicochemical characteristics. A mathematical model had been previously created using the support vector machine method to predict the dose of coagulant according to the parameters of temperature, pH, TAC, conductivity, and turbidity. This Al2(SO4)3 treatment step was repeated at the end of each month for a year, and a second characterization of the physicochemical parameters was carried out in order to compare them with those of the raw water. The results showed a very effective elimination of the various pollutions, with a very high rate, thus demonstrating the effectiveness of the Al2(SO4)3. The physicochemical parameters measured after the treatment showed a significant reduction in the majority of the physicochemical parameters. These results demonstrated that the coagulation–flocculation treatment with Al2(SO4)3 was very effective in eliminating the various pollutions present in the raw water. They also stress the importance of continued research in the field of water treatment to improve the quality of drinking water and protect public health and the environment. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Supply System Reliability, Safety and Risk Modelling & Assessment, Volume II)
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30 pages, 11534 KiB  
Article
The Impact of Large-Scale Water Diversion Projects on the Water Supply Network: A Case Study in Southwest China
by Kaiwen Song, Xiujuan Jiang, Tianye Wang, Dengming Yan, Hongshi Xu and Zening Wu
Water 2024, 16(2), 357; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16020357 - 21 Jan 2024
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2676
Abstract
The uneven spatial and temporal distribution of water resources has consistently been one of the most significant limiting factors for social development in many regions. Furthermore, with the intensification of climate change, this inequality is progressively widening, posing a critical challenge to the [...] Read more.
The uneven spatial and temporal distribution of water resources has consistently been one of the most significant limiting factors for social development in many regions. Furthermore, with the intensification of climate change, this inequality is progressively widening, posing a critical challenge to the sustainable development of human societies. The construction of large-scale water projects has become one of the crucial means to address the contradictions between water supply and demand. Thus, evaluating the functional aspects of water source network structures and systematically planning the layout of engineering measures in a scientifically reasonable manner are pressing issues that require urgent attention in current research efforts. Addressing this, our study takes the Erhai Lake basin and the surrounding areas in southwest China as the study area and combines landscape ecology and network analysis theory methods to propose a water supply network analysis method that takes into account both structure and node characteristics. Based on this methodology, we analyze the connectivity characteristics of water supply networks in the Erhai region under current (2020) and future (2035) planning scenarios. The results show that there were 215 nodes and 216 links in the water supply network of the Erhai Lake basin in 2020; with the implementation of a series of water conservancy projects, the planned 2035 water supply network will increase by 122 nodes and 163 links, and the connectivity of the regional water network will be significantly improved. Also, we identify some key nodes in the network, and the results show that the water supply network in 2035 will have obvious decentralization characteristics compared with that in 2020. And, based on the network degradation analysis, we find that with the implementation of engineering measures, the resilience of the water supply network will be significantly strengthened by 2035, with stronger risk tolerance. This study extends the quantitative representation of water source network characteristics, which can provide a useful reference for water network structure planning and optimization. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Supply System Reliability, Safety and Risk Modelling & Assessment, Volume II)
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