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Groundwater Resources and Salt Water Intrusion in a Changing Environment

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A special issue of Water (ISSN 2073-4441). This special issue belongs to the section "Hydrology".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 September 2018) | Viewed by 87384

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Dr. Maurizio Polemio

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Italian National Research Council-Research Institute for Geo-Hydrological Protection (CNR-IRPI), Via Amendola 122/I, 70126 Bari, Italy
Interests: groundwater management; seawater intrusion; groundwater monitoring
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Prof. Dr. Kristine Walraevens

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Guest Editor

Laboratory for Applied Geology and Hydrogeology, Department of Geology, Ghent University, 9000 Gent, Belgium
Interests: hydrogeology; hydrogeochemistry; EIA; applied geophysics
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The salinisation of groundwater resources can be caused by natural phenomena and anthropogenic activities. Approximately 16% of the total area of continental Earth is potentially involved in groundwater salinisation; seawater intrusion can be considered to be the prevalent phenomenon in terms of potential effects and risks. Water and chemical fluxes, including nutrient loading, at the terrestrial/marine interface and across the sea floor, provide an important linkage between terrestrial and marine environments.

Climate and global change impacts on the hydrological cycle, water resources and ecosystems pose great challenges for global water and ecosystem management especially where the ecological equilibria are strongly depending on groundwater-surface water interaction. The climate change scenarios require new and improved integrated tools for the assessment of climate change impacts on the hydrological cycle. Coastal aquifers and ecosystems are currently under pressure globally from overexploitation and saltwater intrusion. Population growth and progressive gathering in coastal areas, climate change and sea level rise will enhance the pressures and the need for protection and sustainable management of coastal groundwater resources and ecosystems for coastal communities in the future.

This Special Issue of Water calls any contribution on previous subjects which include any useful innovative scientific activities. A non-exhaustive list of desired contributions includes tools, equipment, methods, modelling, and/or experiences on: Hydrogeological, geophysical, geochemical mapping and characterization of the subsurface involving the distribution of freshwater and saltwater; assessment of climate change impact on groundwater resources in coastal areas in terms of quantity and quality and ecosystem status; tools for efficient online visualization and dissemination; risk and vulnerability assessment methods; management approaches; and monitoring experiences.

Dr. Maurizio Polemio
Prof. Dr. Kristine Walraevens
Guest Editors

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Keywords

salt water intrusion
groundwater resources
coastal aquifer
climate change
modelling
monitoring
salinisation
water resources management
aquifer vulnerability
groundwater degradation

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Published Papers (10 papers)

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Editorial

Jump to: Research

4 pages, 189 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Recent Research Results on Groundwater Resources and Saltwater Intrusion in a Changing Environment

by Maurizio Polemio and Kristine Walraevens

Water 2019, 11(6), 1118; https://doi.org/10.3390/w11061118 - 29 May 2019

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 4179

Abstract

This Special Issue presents the work of 30 scientists of 11 countries. It confirms that the impacts of global change, resulting from both climate change and increasing anthropogenic pressure, are huge on worldwide coastal areas (and very particularly on some islands of the Pacific Ocean), with highly negative effects on coastal groundwater resources, widely affected by seawater intrusion. Some improved research methods are proposed in the contributions: using innovative hydrogeological, geophysical, and geochemical monitoring; assessing impacts of the changing environment on the coastal groundwater resources in terms of quantity and quality; and using modelling, especially to improve management approaches. The scientific research needed to face these challenges must continue to be deployed by different approaches based on the monitoring, modeling, and management of groundwater resources. Novel and more efficient methods must be developed to keep up with the accelerating pace of global change. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Groundwater Resources and Salt Water Intrusion in a Changing Environment)

Research

Jump to: Editorial

15 pages, 4456 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Quantification of Submarine Groundwater Discharge in the Gaza Strip

by Ashraf M. Mushtaha and Kristine Walraevens

Water 2018, 10(12), 1818; https://doi.org/10.3390/w10121818 - 10 Dec 2018

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 4260

Abstract

Gaza Strip has suffered from seawater intrusion during the past three decades due to low rainfall and high abstraction from the groundwater resource. On a yearly basis, more than 170 million m³ of groundwater is abstracted, while the long-term average recharge from rainfall is 24.4 million m³/year. Submarine groundwater discharge (SGD) has never been studied in the Gaza Strip, due to lack of experience in this field, next to the ignorance of this subject due to the seawater intrusion process taking place. Continuous radon measurements were carried out in six sites along the Gaza Strip to quantify the SGD rate. The final result shows SGD to occur in all sampled sites. The range of SGD rates varies from 0.9 to 5.9 cm·day⁻¹. High values of SGD are found in the south (Rafah and Khan Younis governorates). The high values are probably related to the shallow unconfined aquifer, while the lowest values of SGD are found in the middle of Gaza Strip, and they are probably related to the Sabkha formation. In the north of Gaza Strip, SGD values are in the range of 1.0 to 2.0 cm·day⁻¹. Considering that SGD would occur with the measured rates in a strip of 100 m wide along the whole coast line, the results in a quantity of 38 million m³ of groundwater being discharged yearly to the Mediterranean Sea along Gaza coast. Nutrient samples were taken along Gaza Strip coastline, and they were compared to the onshore wells, 600 m away from the Mediterranean Sea. The results show that SGD has higher NO₃⁻ + NO₂⁻ than nutrient-poor seawater, and that it is close to the onshore results from the wells. This confirms that the source of SGD is groundwater, and not shallow seawater circulation. In a coastal strip of 100 m wide along the Gaza coast, a yearly discharge of over 400 tons of nitrate and 250 tons of ammonium occurs from groundwater to the Mediterranean Sea. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Groundwater Resources and Salt Water Intrusion in a Changing Environment)

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14 pages, 3670 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Impacts of Sea Level Rise and Groundwater Extraction Scenarios on Fresh Groundwater Resources in the Nile Delta Governorates, Egypt

by Marmar Mabrouk, Andreja Jonoski, Gualbert H. P. Oude Essink and Stefan Uhlenbrook

Water 2018, 10(11), 1690; https://doi.org/10.3390/w10111690 - 20 Nov 2018

Cited by 33 | Viewed by 6970

Abstract

As Egypt’s population increases, the demand for fresh groundwater extraction will intensify. Consequently, the groundwater quality will deteriorate, including an increase in salinization. On the other hand, salinization caused by saltwater intrusion in the coastal Nile Delta Aquifer (NDA) is also threatening the groundwater resources. The aim of this article is to assess the situation in 2010 (since this is when most data is sufficiently available) regarding the available fresh groundwater resources and to evaluate future salinization in the NDA using a 3D variable-density groundwater flow model coupled with salt transport that was developed with SEAWAT. This is achieved by examining six future scenarios that combine two driving forces: increased extraction and sea level rise (SLR). Given the prognosis of the intergovernmental panel on climate change (IPCC), the scenarios are used to assess the impact of groundwater extraction versus SLR on the seawater intrusion in the Delta and evaluate their contributions to increased groundwater salinization. The results show that groundwater extraction has a greater impact on salinization of the NDA than SLR, while the two factors combined cause the largest reduction of available fresh groundwater resources. The significant findings of this research are the determination of the groundwater volumes of fresh water, brackish, light brackish and saline water in the NDA as a whole and in each governorate and the identification of the governorates that are most vulnerable to salinization. It is highly recommended that the results of this analysis are considered in future mitigation and/or adaptation plans. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Groundwater Resources and Salt Water Intrusion in a Changing Environment)

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17 pages, 2395 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Sharp Interface Approach for Regional and Well Scale Modeling of Small Island Freshwater Lens: Tongatapu Island

by Roshina Babu, Namsik Park, Sunkwon Yoon and Taaniela Kula

Water 2018, 10(11), 1636; https://doi.org/10.3390/w10111636 - 12 Nov 2018

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 4322

Abstract

Sustainable management of small island freshwater resources requires an understanding of the extent of freshwater lens and local effects of pumping. In this study, a methodology based on a sharp interface approach is developed for regional and well scale modeling of island freshwater lens. A quasi-three-dimensional finite element model is calibrated with freshwater thickness where the interface is matched to the lower limit of the freshwater lens. Tongatapu Island serves as a case study where saltwater intrusion and well salinization for the current state and six long-term stress scenarios of reduced recharge and increased groundwater pumping are predicted. Though no wells are salinized currently, more than 50% of public wells are salinized for 40% decreased recharge or increased groundwater pumping at 8% of average annual recharge. Risk of salinization for each well depends on the distance from the center of the well field and distance from the lagoon. Saltwater intrusions could occur at less than 50% of the previous estimates of sustainable groundwater pumping where local pumping was not considered. This study demonstrates the application of a sharp interface groundwater model for real-world small islands when dispersion models are challenging to be implemented due to insufficient data or computational resources. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Groundwater Resources and Salt Water Intrusion in a Changing Environment)

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20 pages, 6971 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Interrelations between a Multi-Layered Coastal Aquifer, a Surface Reservoir (Fish Ponds), and the Sea

by Adi Tal, Yishai Weinstein, Stuart Wollman, Mark Goldman and Yoseph Yechieli

Water 2018, 10(10), 1426; https://doi.org/10.3390/w10101426 - 11 Oct 2018

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3745

Abstract

This research examines the interrelations in a complex hydrogeological system, consisting of a multi-layered coastal aquifer, the sea, and a surface reservoir (fish ponds) and the importance of the specific connection between the aquifer and the sea. The paper combines offshore geophysical surveys (CHIRP) and on land TDEM (Time Domain Electro Magnetic), together with hydrological measurements and numerical simulation. The Quaternary aquifer at the southern Carmel plain is sub-divided into three units, a sandy phreatic unit, and two calcareous sandstone (‘Kurkar’) confined units. The salinity in the different units is affected by their connection with the sea. We show that differences in the seaward extent of its clayey roof, as illustrated in the CHIRP survey, result in a varying extent of seawater intrusion due to pumping from the confined units. FEFLOW simulations indicate that the FSI (Fresh Saline water Interface) reached the coastline just a few years after pumping has begun, where the roof terminates ~100 m from shore, while no seawater intrusion occurred in an area where the roof is continuous farther offshore. This was found to be consistent with borehole observations and TDEM data from our study sites. The water level in the coastal aquifer was generally stable with surprisingly no indication for significant seawater intrusion although the aquifer is extensively pumped very close to shore. This is explained by contribution from the underlying Late Cretaceous aquifer, which increased with the pumping rate, as is also indicated by the numerical simulations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Groundwater Resources and Salt Water Intrusion in a Changing Environment)

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24 pages, 7422 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Groundwater Overexploitation and Seawater Intrusion in Coastal Areas of Arid and Semi-Arid Regions

by Nawal Alfarrah and Kristine Walraevens

Water 2018, 10(2), 143; https://doi.org/10.3390/w10020143 - 2 Feb 2018

Cited by 251 | Viewed by 21942

Abstract

The exploitation of groundwater resources is of high importance and has become very crucial in the last decades, especially in coastal areas of arid and semi-arid regions. The coastal aquifers in these regions are particularly at risk due to intrusion of salty marine water. One example is the case of Tripoli city at the Mediterranean coast of Jifarah Plain, North West Libya. Libya has experienced progressive seawater intrusion in the coastal aquifers since the 1930s because of its ever increasing water demand from underground water resources. Tripoli city is a typical area where the contamination of the aquifer in the form of saltwater intrusion is very developed. Sixty-four groundwater samples were collected from the study area and analyzed for certain parameters that indicate salinization and pollution of the aquifer. The results demonstrate high values of the parameters Electrical Conductivity, Na⁺, K⁺, Mg²⁺, Cl⁻ and SO₄²⁻, which can be attributed to seawater intrusion, where Cl⁻ is the major pollutant of the aquifer. The water types according to the Stuyfzand groundwater classification are mostly CaCl, NaCl and Ca/MgMix. These water types indicate that groundwater chemistry is changed by cation exchange reactions during the mixing process between freshwater and seawater. The intensive extraction of groundwater from the aquifer reduces freshwater outflow to the sea, creates drawdown cones and lowering of the water table to as much as 25 m below mean sea level. Irrigation with nitrogen fertilizers and domestic sewage and movement of contaminants in areas of high hydraulic gradients within the drawdown cones probably are responsible for the high NO₃⁻ concentration in the region. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Groundwater Resources and Salt Water Intrusion in a Changing Environment)

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10396 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Saltwater Intrusion and Freshwater Storage in Sand Sediments along the Coastline: Hydrogeological Investigations and Groundwater Modeling of Nauru Island

by Luca Alberti, Ivana La Licata and Martino Cantone

Water 2017, 9(10), 788; https://doi.org/10.3390/w9100788 - 13 Oct 2017

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 10388

Abstract

Water resources sustainable management is a vital issue for small islands where groundwater is often the only available water resource. Nauru is an isolated and uplifted limestone atoll island located in the Pacific Ocean. Politecnico di Milano performed a feasibility study for the development of sustainable use of groundwater on the island. This paper focuses on the first phase of the study that concerns the conceptual site model development, the hydrogeological characterization and the 2D model implementation. During the project, different activities were performed such as GNSS topographic survey of monitoring wells and groundwater level surveys taking into account tidal fluctuation. This data collection and the analysis of previous studies made it possible to identify the most suitable areas for groundwater sustainable extraction. The characterization findings suggested, unlike previous studies and surveys, the presence of only few drought resilient thin freshwater lenses, taking place in low conductivity sandy deposits, unexpectedly next to the seashore. Thanks to the 2D modeling results, it has been possible to clarify the mechanism that allows the storage of freshwater so close to the sea. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Groundwater Resources and Salt Water Intrusion in a Changing Environment)

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6935 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Atoll Groundwater Movement and Its Response to Climatic and Sea-Level Fluctuations

by Ferdinand K. J. Oberle, Peter W. Swarzenski and Curt D. Storlazzi

Water 2017, 9(9), 650; https://doi.org/10.3390/w9090650 - 30 Aug 2017

Cited by 23 | Viewed by 13795

Abstract

Groundwater resources of low-lying atoll islands are threatened due to short-term and long-term changes in rainfall, wave climate, and sea level. A better understanding of how these forcings affect the limited groundwater resources was explored on Roi-Namur in the Republic of the Marshall Islands. As part of a 16-month study, a rarely recorded island-overwash event occurred and the island’s aquifer’s response was measured. The findings suggest that small-scale overwash events cause an increase in salinity of the freshwater lens that returns to pre-overwash conditions within one month. The overwash event is addressed in the context of climate-related local sea-level change, which suggests that overwash events and associated degradations in freshwater resources are likely to increase in severity in the future due to projected rises in sea level. Other forcings, such as severe rainfall events, were shown to have caused a sudden freshening of the aquifer, with salinity levels retuning to pre-rainfall levels within three months. Tidal forcing of the freshwater lens was observed in electrical resistivity profiles, high-resolution conductivity, groundwater-level well measurements and through submarine groundwater discharge calculations. Depth-specific geochemical pore water measurements further assessed and confirmed the distinct boundaries between fresh and saline water masses in the aquifer. The identification of the freshwater lens’ saline boundaries is essential for a quantitative evaluation of the aquifers freshwater resources and help understand how these resources may be impacted by climate change and anthropogenic activities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Groundwater Resources and Salt Water Intrusion in a Changing Environment)

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8894 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Delineation of Salt Water Intrusion through Use of Electromagnetic-Induction Logging: A Case Study in Southern Manhattan Island, New York

by Frederick Stumm and Michael D. Como

Water 2017, 9(9), 631; https://doi.org/10.3390/w9090631 - 23 Aug 2017

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 8325

Abstract

Groundwater with chloride concentrations up to 15,000 mg/L has intruded the freshwater aquifer underlying southern Manhattan Island, New York. Historical (1940–1950) chloride concentration data of glacial aquifer wells in the study area indicate the presence of four wedges of saltwater intrusion that may have been caused by industrial pumpage. The limited recharge capability of the aquifer, due to impervious surfaces and the 22.7 million liters per day (mld) of reported industrial pumpage early in the 20th Century was probably the cause for the saltwater intrusion and the persistence of the historical saltwater intrusion wedges over time. Recent drilling of wells provided new information on the hydrogeology and extent of saltwater intrusion of the glacial aquifer overlying bedrock. The new observation wells provided ground-water level, chloride concentration, hydraulic conductivity, and borehole geophysical data of the glacial aquifer. The glacial sediments range in thickness from less than 0.3 m to more than 76.2 m within the study area. A linear relation between Electromagnetic-induction (EM) conductivity log response and measured chloride concentration was determined. Using this relation, chloride concentration was estimated in parts of the glacial aquifer where sampling was not possible. EM logging is an effective tool to monitor changes in saltwater intrusion wedges. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Groundwater Resources and Salt Water Intrusion in a Changing Environment)

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3211 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comparative Evaluation of ANN- and SVM-Time Series Models for Predicting Freshwater-Saltwater Interface Fluctuations

by Heesung Yoon, Yongcheol Kim, Kyoochul Ha, Soo-Hyoung Lee and Gee-Pyo Kim

Water 2017, 9(5), 323; https://doi.org/10.3390/w9050323 - 4 May 2017

Cited by 24 | Viewed by 6951

Abstract

Time series models based on an artificial neural network (ANN) and support vector machine (SVM) were designed to predict the temporal variation of the upper and lower freshwater-saltwater interface level (FSL) at a groundwater observatory on Jeju Island, South Korea. Input variables included past measurement data of tide level (T), rainfall (R), groundwater level (G) and interface level (F). The T-R-G-F type ANN and SVM models were selected as the best performance model for the direct prediction of the upper and lower FSL, respectively. The recursive prediction ability of the T-R-G type SVM model was best for both upper and lower FSL. The average values of the performance criteria and the analysis of error ratio of recursive prediction to direct prediction (RP-DP ratio) show that the SVM-based time series model of the FSL prediction is more accurate and stable than the ANN at the study site. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Groundwater Resources and Salt Water Intrusion in a Changing Environment)

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