Atmosphere Effects in Laser Powder Bed Fusion: A Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Mechanisms of Defect Generation and Laser Beam Attenuation
Section Summary and Impact on LPBF
3. Atmosphere Composition Effects in Laser Beam Welding
3.1. Helium
3.2. Nitrogen
3.3. Carbon Dioxide and Oxygen
3.4. Section Summary and Impact on LPBF
4. Atmosphere Pressure Effects in Laser Beam Welding
4.1. Vacuum
4.2. Hyperbaric
4.3. Section Summary and Impact on LPBF
5. Current Applications in LPBF
5.1. Atmosphere Composition Effects in LPBF
5.2. Atmosphere Pressure Effects in LPBF
6. Conclusions and Outlook
- Custom equipment is required for atmosphere control, as commercially available LPBF machines currently do not offer the necessary features such as vacuum chambers or gas mixers. Despite this, researchers have begun to apply these principles, exhibiting the potential benefits.
- The nature of the LPBF process—with a free-flowing powder bed—requires powder bed conditioning before vacuum processing can occur. This was demonstrated in a limited laboratory capacity, but maturation is still required to put this into practice.
- The use of vacuum processing shows great potential; however, practical effects of condensate and spatter removal from the laser beam’s scan path under a sub-atmospheric environment have not yet been demonstrated.
- Overall, there is a strong outlook for the adoption of atmosphere manipulation in industrial LPBF applications, pending the resolution of the previous points.
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Nomenclature
AM | additive manufacturing |
LPBF | laser powder bed fusion |
EBPBF | electron beam powder bed fusion |
LDED | laser-directed energy deposition |
laser wavelength | |
inverse bremsstrahlung absorption coefficient | |
Rayleigh scattering coefficient | |
electron number density | |
ion number density | |
z | charge number |
e | electronic charge |
C | velocity of light |
dielectric constant of medium | |
mass of electron | |
Boltzmann constant | |
T | temperature |
angular frequency of a laser beam | |
angular frequency of plasma oscillation | |
Coulomb logarithm | |
Rayleigh scattering coefficient | |
N | number density of particle |
V | particle volume |
dielectric constant of particle | |
electron temperature |
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Properties | Argon | Nitrogen | Helium | Carbon Dioxide |
---|---|---|---|---|
Density (kg·m−3) | 1.62 | 1.14 | 0.16 | 1.80 |
Ionization Energy (eV) | 15.7 | 14.5 | 24.6 | 13.8 |
Disassociation Energy (eV) | - | 9.756 | - | CO2 → CO + O @ 5.5 |
CO → C + O @ 10.0 | ||||
CO2 → C + O + O @ 15.5 | ||||
Thermal Conductivity (W·m−1·K−1) | 0.0178 | 0.0260 | 0.156 | 0.0168 |
Heat Capacity Cp (J·mol−1·K−1) | 20.83 | 29.17 | 20.79 | 37.52 |
Chemical Activity | Inert | Reactive | Inert | Oxidizing |
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Brown, B.; Lough, C.; Wilson, D.; Newkirk, J.; Liou, F. Atmosphere Effects in Laser Powder Bed Fusion: A Review. Materials 2024, 17, 5549. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17225549
Brown B, Lough C, Wilson D, Newkirk J, Liou F. Atmosphere Effects in Laser Powder Bed Fusion: A Review. Materials. 2024; 17(22):5549. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17225549
Chicago/Turabian StyleBrown, Ben, Cody Lough, Davis Wilson, Joseph Newkirk, and Frank Liou. 2024. "Atmosphere Effects in Laser Powder Bed Fusion: A Review" Materials 17, no. 22: 5549. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17225549
APA StyleBrown, B., Lough, C., Wilson, D., Newkirk, J., & Liou, F. (2024). Atmosphere Effects in Laser Powder Bed Fusion: A Review. Materials, 17(22), 5549. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17225549