Innovation Diffusion in Land Resource Use Practices Around Cameroon’s Hollow Frontiers

Abstract

Innovation diffusion has been extensively explored in several contexts, with little application to hollow frontiers—economically attractive areas with resource opportunities. This dearth of scientific data bedevils the design of resource-planning approaches for hollow frontiers. Using the innovation diffusion model as an analytical lens, this study; (1) maps key resources and actors engaged in the Mungo corridor hollow frontier, (2) analyzes the differential patterns of innovation and the forces that drive them, and (3) explores the management implications of resource-linked innovation diffusion. A random sample of 100 households was conducted in the Njombe-Penja communities of the Mungo Corridor. The analysis reveals the following: Firstly, rich fertile soils, forests, quarries and water resources are the key resources exploited by farmers, bureaucrats, businessmen, NGOs and other enterprises who constitute the key innovation actors in Njombe-Penja. Secondly, differential patterns of innovation exist, with techniques and products introduced by companies/state departments to farmers and by NGOs and technical/research departments to communities and state, private and community-based enterprises. This leads to varied resource use outcomes. Innovations are significant in the domain of agriculture (62%) and quarrying (65%), moderately significant in the forest sector (55%) and least significant in water resources (48%). Economic (63%), natural (25%), socio-cultural (23.7%) and political drivers (50%) explain the diverse outcomes linked to innovation diffusion. Finally, the most significant implications of innovations are in the domain of agriculture through improved cropping systems and the use of disease-resistant species. Here, specialization in cash crop cultivation and fruit culture (white pepper, pawpaw, pineapples) is predominant. Additionally, this sector has witnessed the introduction of new methods of cultivation. The least significant implications were recorded for forest use practices. Innovations sustain new dynamics for this resource-rich area and provide new opportunities for reflections on reorganizing resource use for successful management. Power manifestations in the context of the diffusion of innovations are new areas to consider for further research.

1. Introduction

Natural resource-rich areas attract a lot of interest and people [1]. Natural resources are indispensable for the functioning of human societies, but surprisingly little attention has been paid to perspectives related to innovation and its natural resource use and management dynamics [2]. While natural resources are exploited for different ends, the issue of innovation around natural resources lacks clarity concerning how innovations are introduced, the channels of distribution, the key actors involved and their implications. This is problematic, given the centrality of innovation and technological change for growth and development [3,4,5,6]. Innovations are the ideation, development and commercialization of substantially new products, services or technologies which facilitate the development of new sources of competitive advantage [7,8]. The fabric of innovation diffusion in resource sectors presents itself like a chain, in a system wherein new ideas or technologies are introduced, with some people embracing them fast, while others anticipate them and based on the results, tend to act. Different channels help to facilitate or constrain the trickling down of innovations, with different implications for resource users and the landscape. Four important trends/drivers for innovations are identified nevertheless: an increase in the volume of demand, which enhances productivity and production via innovation; variety and possibilities of differentiation related to natural resources; the emergence of new technologies such as biotechnology multiplying possibilities of differentiation; and innovation activities for diversification and increasing outsourcing [9]. These combined factors can create new opportunities for domestic, small and medium-sized firms if they can respond with innovation and upgrading [10,11,12]. The process of innovation is an interesting one that starts with generating ideas, capturing ideas, beginning innovations and spreading them among others. As such there is awareness, interest, evaluation, trial and adoption. In Latin America, the diffusion process has been linked to the wealth of countries [13,14] and natural resources, especially in agriculture and plantations around forests in countries like Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Columbia, Ecuador, Peru and Venezuela [15]. Technological innovations are primed in Asia using two approaches; market-based and performance-standard approaches [5]. The diffusion and adoption of existing technologies spur significant productivity gains in South East Asia but are limited by a lack of adequate information on new technologies, the uncertainty of returns, innovation capabilities weak management quality and a lack of skills, and limited financing options and policies [16].

Natural resource-based amenities act as pull factors to migration and change but raise questions about interactions between people and natural resources [17]. With the Brazilian examples [15], a decrease in the price of an agricultural product that was expected to encourage intensive methods of production rather led to land abandonment in areas of decreasing profits. The preference is either for new lands that yield a profit with little capital investment or for a new product for which the rate of return is high. The result is the “hollow frontier phenomenon” [14,15], i.e., a situation characterized by land abandonment in one location due to declining productivity, followed by corresponding waves of movement along a developed transport line to areas that possess rich soils and other economic opportunities [14]. Hollow frontiers constitute areas with resource-rich potential, where people leave areas of lesser opportunities to take advantage of better opportunities. They constitute natural resource-endowed areas that serve as an attractive pool to current and prospective resource users [18]. Hollow frontiers provide an interesting landscape to understand the differential pattern of innovations and their resource use practice implications. The innovation diffusion framework provides a useful lens to identify key resources and innovations, to explain how they trickle down across different actors and the way they are communicated to scale up resource use practices. This is mirrored through the different levels of adopters (resource users) and how they assimilate innovations by (not) engaging in resource use practices. This model was developed in the 1960s but has considerably advanced in the last two decades in human and ecological systems and the dynamic interactions in these systems.

In the Global South, key resources, notably forest resources and fertile soils have served as attraction pools, thus facilitating the hollow frontier process. In Africa, south of the Sahara, migration histories are associated with key resources, particularly fertile soils, mines and a good climate [3,17]. While both state and non-state actors initiate innovations, they are often (not) diffused around hollow frontiers.

Cameroon, a country sandwiched between Central Africa and West Africa, is blessed with numerous natural resources [19]. This diversity of resources offers different opportunities and constitutes an attraction pull manifesting with hollow frontier characteristics. The Cameroonian pattern of people moving in search of resource wealth is typical of frontier areas, with peculiar characteristics that warrant the identification of empirical evidence-based traits for research and policy frameworks. The presence of minerals in the East Region attracts a lot of people across the country [20]. This holds for the Mungo corridor of Cameroon with its rich natural resources—forest, land and water—providing several economic advantages [21]. In effect, “hollow frontees”1 leave the western highlands and other parts of Cameroon with fewer opportunities and migrate to the Mungo corridor, with different implications, especially for natural resource use practices [22]. The magnitude of innovation diffusion lacks clarity. This research therefore seeks to answer the following questions: What are the key resources and what innovations are introduced by stakeholders? How have they shaped resource use practices in the Mungo corridor? Research in this corridor has focused on economic aspects and resource use, with very little as to what happens to innovations. This paper focuses on identifying key resource actors and innovations and their differential paths of spreading, as well as their implications for resource use practices in the Njombe-Penja area. These attributes shape innovation diffusion channels and adoption in resource use and affect livelihood and land use.

2. Analytical Framework

The Innovation Diffusion Model

The diffusion of innovations is a theory that seeks to explain how, why and at what rate new ideas and technology spread. Torsten Hägerstrand developed this theory, emphasizing spatial processes [16,17]. Any idea, practice or object that is perceived as new by an individual or other unit of adoption could be considered an innovation available for study, while diffusion refers to spreading out to other areas. For Rogers (2003) [23], it is processed through knowledge, persuasion, decision, implementation and confirmation in a time-ordered manner [10]. This follows early adopters to late adopters to the laggards. We strive to understand the pattern of diffusion; and how ideas, practices, techniques and products spread through the population in hollow frontiers. It relates to land (cropping systems, stem support, land consolidation), forest (agroforestry, conservation strategies), quarries (semi-mechanized methods) and water resources (quality and coverage, pumps and sprinklers) in the study area. With innovations in agriculture, we identify the patterns of diffusion and the channels through which such innovations are communicated; from state departments and non-governmental organizations to farmers, from agro-industrial establishments to farmers, from farm input/supply organizations to farmers, from agriculture post/extension services/adapted technical centres to small farmers and village communities, from research institution to farmers, from credit-granting organizations and micro-financing groups to members and from farmers to farmers. Agricultural innovations are commonplace, here linked especially to land resources, and they continue to shape land use practices. We also look at differential patterns of innovations and their implications for key resources like land, forests, quarries and water (Figure 1). These are challenged by lack of capital, access to land, incentives to act, governance and regulatory structures, access to inputs, business support and skills. Different resources are attracting key actors with diverse socioeconomic, natural and political drivers. Actors bring innovations through land, water, forest and quarries, but despite the challenges, innovations diffuse differently in speed according to technology and capabilities. Thus, there is spatial variation, with some adopting early and others late but producing different impacts across the landscape.

3. Method

3.1. Study Area

The Mungo corridor falls in the Moungo division of the Littoral region of Cameroon, with 13 districts: Loum, Nkongsamba I, II, and III, Njoumbe-Penja to Mbanga, Manjo, Dibombari, Bare-Bakem, Melong, Bonalea, Mombo and Ebone.

This study was carried out in the Njombe-Penja communities (Figure 2), with the choice of these two selected communities predicated on the rapid changes taking place in land use and the high presence of migrants. Results from the Njombe-Penja area help to draw insights on trends in key resources, with differential patterns of innovation diffusion and implications for resource use practices for the Mungo corridor. The population in this corridor is made of descendants of the Bafoum clan in Njombe-Penja as indigenes but is highly composed of migrants like Bamilekes, anglophone Cameroonians, Tikar and Mbororo. It is therefore a mixed population practicing different activities with varying resource use outcomes. The Mungo corridor has thus attracted different waves of people across the areas, which continue to introduce innovations that (re)shape resource use practices. The population of Njombe-Penja stood at over 50,800 inhabitants following the 2005 population census over a surface area of 260 km², with a density of over 200 persons per square kilometre.

3.2. Method

The preparation and design of the research instruments (questionnaire) were carried out between the months of May and June 2022. During this period, preliminary field studies were undertaken, and necessary adjustments were made to the research instruments. The questionnaire was composed of 22 questions: 10 open-ended questions for respondents and 12 closed-ended questions. The questionnaire was organized into sections: section one centred on socio-demographic data, and section two focused on natural resource use practices. The third section captured natural resource use actors in the Mungo corridor, while section four dwelt on innovations in natural resource use. Section five focused on drivers of innovation diffusion, while section six looked at natural resource management implications. The choice of the chosen communities—Njombe and Penja—is justified by the area’s rapid landscape changes and user groups with the best-matched environmental characteristics, which provide a mix of different organizational types in this ecological zone, with potentially confounding influences, such as large mines, forest and fertile soils. The administration of the questionnaire followed a systematic random approach. Respondents were selected using a skip or interval, i.e., after every 2 or 3 households, a household was targeted. A total of 58 questionnaires and 42 questionnaires were administered in the Njombe (Ngwandang, Njombe fan, Njombe VI, Bonadam) and Penja (Mouatchom, Mpoula, Mouataba, Moulinkam, Mbongkota, Bayile) communities. The inclusion of multiple group types across the study site ensures the representativeness of our sample, with the association of variables that portray the diffusion of innovations across the landscape. The questionnaire copies were administered to 100 rural households (

Table 1. Questionnaire distribution in the Njombe-Penja hollow frontier.

Community	Village Allocation	Number of Questionnaires
Njombe (58)	Ngwandang	26
	Njombe fan	11
	Njombe VI	10
	Bonadam	11
Penja (42)	Mouatchom	18
	Mpoula-Mouataba	11
	Moulinkam	5
	Mbongkota Bayile	8
Total		100

). Considering the population of this rural area, a sample of over 30 households was considered sufficient [24].

The data collected for this study was entered into Excel, imported, cleaned and analyzed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 25.0. At the 95% confidence level (α = 0.05), both descriptive and inferential analyses were performed. The frequency distribution (percentages), as well as measures of the central tendencies (means, standard deviations, maximum and minimum), was used to describe the sample population. The frequency distribution (percentages), alongside pairwise ranking, was used to describe and rank the different natural resources and the practices and speed of innovations in the area. The Chi-square test was used to explore the rate of adoption of innovations in the area, comparing the results for men and women, as well as migrants and indigenes, to see differential patterns of innovation diffusion and impacts on resource use.

4. Results

4.1. Natural Resource Use Practices and Actors in the Mungo Corridor Hollow Frontier

The Mungo corridor hollow frontier is a resource-rich area with different natural resource use practices across the landscape. People’s computed perception ranked resources in terms of their importance. Fertile land is a vital resource in this landscape, with an over 100% identification of land as the most important resource, especially used for farming.

Concerning the resources available, the information in

Table 2. Natural resource availability and use.

Available Natural Resources		Rank	Natural Resource Use Practices		Rank
Forest	97%	4th	Agriculture	100%	1st
Land	100%	1st	Settlement	100%	2nd
Quarry	97%	3rd	Forestry/Conservation	94%	4th
Water	100%	2nd	Quarrying	97%	3rd

reveals that land (ranked first), water (ranked second), quarries (ranked third) and forests (ranked fourth) were the key resources available along the Mungo corridor hollow frontier. As for the various practices, agriculture was ranked first, settlement and commerce ranked second, quarry activities ranked third and then forestry and/or conservation was ranked fourth.

Relating to natural resource use practices (the exploitation of natural wealth), the first resource use practice is agriculture. The dominant agricultural land use type is the cultivation of cash crops. First, there is the banana plantation managed by Plantation des Hauts Penja (PHP). This banana plantation occupies almost a third of the land surface of Njombe-Penja, set up on fertile soils of volcanic origin and rich in mineral elements. This plantation employs hundreds of workers and forms one of the main land use practices in the area, with bananas produced especially for foreign markets in Europe. Second, there are market-oriented crops, with one that stands out is the famous peppercorns (white pepper, poivre blanc, Penja pepper) of Njombe-Penja, a reputable spice recognized the world over that continues to grow in market value. It is one of the main land use types in agriculture, quite visible through its vertical stem support system in the farms. The plant grows on a stake, and at maturity, the berry is stripped of its skin and dried. Others include the production of fruits: pawpaw and pineapples. The production of cocoa and oil palms also makes up an important part of agricultural land use, with smallholder farm sizes that continue to receive innovations in species and techniques of production from different stakeholders. These are evidence-based practices with outcomes that drive innovation. Another significant land use type in this area is quarrying, wherein pyroclastic materials are extracted for the fabrication of cement and road construction by the quarry company. Moreover, settlement is clustered within these two localities of Njombe and Penja but occupies just a fair share of land use, with part of it for small trading or commercial functions, especially along National Road Number 3. The construction of modern houses, with housing development within settlements sprawling and an increase in transport activities, are all related to the growth of hollow frontees. Forest constitutes part of the landscape and makes part of the land use of the area, especially with conservation efforts made in the area through some of the reserves created. Nevertheless, the extraction of wood and non-timber forest products (NTFPs) especially by the local population, is very important. According to respondents, agriculture stands out in land use with over 56%, settlement at 20%, commercial functions at 18% and quarrying at 6%.

The hollow frontiers of Cameroon, especially the Mungo corridor hollow frontier, in this case, the Njombe-Penja district, are characterized by diverse categories of actors (state and non-state) with different age groups. The major state actor is the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (MINADER) which is involved in the dissemination and follow-up of innovations in techniques, species and phytosanitary (fertilizers, pesticides, fungicides) products for agricultural development in the Njombe-Penja area. The role of the sub-divisional delegate for Njombe-Penja and extension workers of the ministry is important, as they accompany farmers especially, to manage the cultivation of food and cash crops within the district. There are community actors, mostly individuals of all age groups, especially the youths that are involved in the cultivation of market-oriented crops, especially fruits, and working in other domains like quarries. We also have village groups involved in either agriculture or other activities. One of the most important key stakeholders is the PHP company, which is involved in the cultivation and production of bananas for export in a vast plantation that makes part of the predominant land use map of the Njombe-Penja area. Finally, we have the Societe d’extraction et de transport de poucelan (SETP-SARL), a quarry company involved in the extraction of pyroclastic materials to produce cement in Douala by the Dangote cement company. The role of these actors is complementary across the landscape; the Institute of Agricultural Research and Development (IRAD) and farmers’ shops complement the role of the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (MINADER) and its extension workers in the diffusion of new products, species and techniques. The recent actions of the council and the German Technical Cooperation Corporation GTZ have come to complement PHP in water provision. Moreover, the SEPT company in quarrying now provides tons of crushed rocks that help in farm-to-market road maintenance (

Table 3. Key actors and their role in natural resource use in the Njombe-Penja Hollow Frontier.

SN	Natural Resource	Actors	Roles
1	Land	Traditional council, community actors, council, state	They manage, rent and distribute land resources for settlement, business and agriculture. Access to land and litigation
		MINADER	Guides and orientates farmers in the use of products, species and methods, especially innovations in agriculture
		PHP	Production of bananas
		IRAD	Research and development of improved breeds, dissemination of hybrids
		Village groups, individuals, community actors, farmer shops	Production of cash crops like white pepper, pawpaw, pineapples, cocoa and oil palms
2	Water	SNEC, Council, PHP, GTZ	Manage and supply potable water to the community
		PHP	PHP strictly provides water to its plantations and workers’ camps
3	Quarries	SETP, SARL	Excavate and crush puzzolana, rock/stone gravel, and building materials
4	Forest	MINFOF	Monitor, manage and conserve the forest
		Village groups, individuals	Harvest timber for construction and non-timber forest products (NTFPs)
5	Others	Individuals	Street vending of different products

).

Besides the key actors identified, the key attributes of the population involved in the Njombe-Penja hollow frontier were characterized. There are also migrants from other parts of Cameroon to this resource-rich area (38%); Cameroonians from the West Region, from the North-West and South-West Regions and people from the North Region of Cameroon (Figure 3). Over 62% of respondents were migrants, with 18% from the West Region, and 42% from the North-West (40%) and South-West Regions (2%).

In terms of length of stay, 45% have a less than 10-year stay, with 34% with less than or equal to 6 years of stay, corresponding with political instability in anglophone Cameroon, as over 30% come from the North-West. Just about 6% have a 10–20 year stay and about 9% a 20–30 year stay, mostly indigenes and plantation workers. Land scarcity, soil infertility, the fall in prices of some cash crops and recent political insecurity were identified as push factors and the resource-rich attractiveness of the Mungo corridor as a pull factor. Over 48% of actors have a secondary education, while 23% have a basic education background, 11% have no formal education, and over 18% have a higher education that allows them to appreciate innovations differently (

Table 4. Educational level and the main occupation of respondents.

Educational Level		Main Occupation
No formal education	11%	Farmer	26%
Primary education	23%	Plantation worker	17%
Secondary education	48%	Quarry worker	16%
Tertiary education	18%	Student/teacher	11%
		Small trader	21%
		Forester	3%
		Bike rider	6%

). In this study, most of the respondents had farming as their main source of livelihood (26%), followed by those involved in small trading (21%), plantation workers (17%) and then quarry workers (16%).

Further, while some reported an average monthly income of FCFA 15,000, some had as much as an FCFA 200,000 income a month. In this study however, the mean number of years living in the community was calculated at about 14 years (13.8 ± 11.1128 years), while the average monthly income stood at FCFA 74,600 (FCFA 74,600 ± 41,890).

4.2. Innovations in Natural Resource Use

While natural resources are exploited in the Njombe-Penja hollow frontier for different ends, different innovations are introduced in resource exploitation that affect resource use, with differential patterns of distribution across the landscape. In quarrying, companies, notably the SETP company (Societe d’extraction and de transformation de pouzzolane) and the Arab Construction quarry company, have introduced new machinery and are now crushing extracted rocks into large amounts of gravel for construction. Exploitation techniques have largely changed from artisanal to semi-mechanized industrial methods. New machines have been introduced to excavate, extract and crush rocks into gravel. More recent modern technology is used to excavate pozzolana for the cement factory. This has shifted from artisanal digging to the use of explosives and machinery like excavators and front-end loaders.

In the domain of agriculture, the differential patterns of innovations that trickle down to different land users are quite impeccable. They relate to land and land use change. According to the respondents, innovations in agriculture are mostly introduced by the sub-divisional delegate of the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development through its extension workers. New improved disease-resistant and more productive species are often introduced and followed up for cultivation by farmers by agricultural extension workers. A major innovation from the mixed cropping system that existed before is the use of mono-cropping systems, especially for cash-oriented crops in small agro-farms and plantations. The cultivation of fruits (pawpaw and pineapples) in these farms is well organized, to achieve field functional outcomes with defined methods of cultivation. This seems to be the area where innovations are rapidly spread to farmers, whilst capabilities and skills are also improved through training workshops organized by MINADER, to optimize outcomes.

There is IRAD for farmer/group distribution. Later, farmer-to-farmer distribution takes place, with cassava stems distributed from farms to other farms with better productivity. In April 2020, IRAD developed the “8034 cassava” ameliorated variety with high yields and resistance to several diseases, in collaboration with the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA). This was rapidly multiplied and put at the disposal of producers. In the Mbouroukou antenna depending on Njombe, more than 10,000 stems were harvested for distribution, of the 25–30 cm recommended dimensions. The station has also developed ameliorated species of pawpaw (Carica papaya) and distributed them to farmers, as well as sweet potatoes (TIB1) and Coca SR maize. The 8034 cassava species was a vegetal species that won four gold medals in innovation for Cameroon during the Geneva International Forum of inventions in Switzerland in 2016.

Stakes were used in larger land holdings for cultivation in a stem support system to obtain better quality and quantities. Some key innovators brought changes first by acquiring more land, to transit from small farmsteads to larger farm holdings. The Bamileke from the West Region of Cameroon, qualified in the area as “invasive people”, are quite reputable, have business-oriented strategies, and happen to have acquired and continue to invest in land development and crop cultivation. Also, some migrants from the North-West and South-West Regions of Cameroon are taking a turn and investing in agriculture, with the number increasing in the past 5 years since 2017, despite the socio-political crisis in anglophone Cameroon. These farmers have changed a lot in land organization, with larger land holdings, setting up small agro-plantations well organized in rows and making provision for irrigation with water from the rivers around.

Innovations in the production of bananas have been orchestrated, largely by research carried out by the Plantation des Haut Penja (PHP). Having a large plantation in the area, research is constantly carried out by them to improve species, produce seedlings and grow them on farms. The Njombe-Penja communities have largely benefitted from these innovations by acquiring seedlings from the PHP company and adopting their techniques of production for improvement. The production of plantains has followed the same innovations and improved over time. MINADER has led innovations in the timing, type and application of fertilizers, herbicides and fungicides. The use of these products is also channelled through some farmers’ stores, where farmers can acquire products but without strict measures as to how and when to apply them. Capacity-building workshops are organized with farmers to scale up their strategies in resource use. The extension workers of MINADER work with farmers and ensure they apply these products promptly for better outcomes.

The intensification of farming practices is very much related to innovations from different channels. Water management in the Njombe-Penja communities has over the years been problematic. Over time, the national water management company (SNEC) was extended to Njombe, and portable water was extended to parts of the community. The Njombe-Penja council has also invested in bore holes and pipe-borne water to these two communities. Moreover, farmers now acquire water pumps and use them for irrigation.

The forest is one of the key natural resources in the area, which is managed by community actors and the delegation for the Ministry of Forestry. Some species have been introduced in the area by the forestry delegation, and limitations have also been given to community actors as to how exploitation of forest resources for community use should be allowed. These innovations have been accepted by the people and are practiced in collaboration with other stakeholders.

4.3. Differential Levels of Innovation Adoption

Different channels trickle down innovations into the grassroots, with diverse actors in differential patterns for key resources: the land, forest, water and quarries in the area (

Table 5. Major innovations in the Njombe-Penja hollow frontier.

Resource	Innovations	Mechanisms
Land	Stem support system	Cropping system, monoculture, small agro-plantations, stem support stakes for the Penja pepper, wind breaks
	Improved disease-resistant species	New breeds of cassava (8034 species), cocoa, pawpaw, sweet potatoes (TIB1), Coca SR maize species, banana and use of farm inputs
	Fruit cultivation	Monoculture, small plantation, pawpaw, pineapple
Water	Extension of water coverage and quality	Bore holes, improvement in treatment and coverage
	Water pumps and use of sprinklers	Irrigation and counter-season cropping
Quarry	Sophisticated machinery	Semi-mechanized extraction of rocks
Forest	Agroforestry and new species	Alley cropping
	Conservation strategies, selective harvest and rationality	Selective harvest and respect of forestry laws

). Nevertheless, innovations spread at different speeds, and others are limited. Innovations on land and agriculture (innovation 1) are fast (62%), just like those in forests (innovation 4) (65%); innovations in quarrying (innovation 3) are moderate (55%), the same as those in water resources (innovation 2) (48%), in their advancing speed (Figure 4).

In this study, only 31% of the respondents acknowledged having participated in natural resource-linked training. Moreover, no significant difference was recorded between the males and females who had participated in natural resource-linked training (31.6% and 29% respectively, X² = 1.979, p = 0.150), or between indigenes and migrants (35.7% and 22.7% respectively, X² = 0.073, p = 0.787). As can be inferred from

Table 6. Number of years in community and income level.

	Minimum	Maximum	Mean	Std. Deviation
Number of years in community	2	50	13.8	11.1128
Income level/FCFA	15,000	200,000	74,600	41,890

, the innovations with the fastest rates of adoption were linked to forests (conservation, the introduction of new tree species and agroforestry) and land (improved cropping systems, improved disease-resistant species). For instance, it was observed that close to 66% of the females and 59% of the males have fast-adopted innovations brought on land resources (X² = 4.212, p = 0.122). Similarly, close to 66% of the females and 64% of the males have fast-adopted innovations brought within forests (X² = 0.116, p = 0.944). It is worth mentioning that no significant differences were observed between the adoption rates of men and women (p > 0.1).

In addition to gender, a comparative analysis was performed for the adoption rates of both migrants and indigenes. The distribution also shows that the innovations with the fastest rates of adoption are linked to forests and land. The results show that 60.5% of the indigenes and close to 63% of the migrants have fast-adopted innovations brought on land resources (X² = 0.337, p = 0.0.845). Similarly, close to 53% of the indigenes and close to 73% of the migrants have fast-adopted innovations brought on land resources (X² = 0.116, p = 0.944). Just as was the case with gender differences, no significant differences were observed between the adoption rates of the indigenes and migrants (p > 0.1).

4.4. Drivers of Innovation Diffusion

These diverse drivers spur differential patterns of the diffusion of new ideas, techniques and developments in key resources like land, quarries, water and forests in the area. Natural drivers, especially fertile volcanic soils and good relief, play a great role in attracting people to this area and are a major driver in agriculture. Field data gave a cumulative percentage of 43% for soils and relief, 19% for drainage, 19% for climate and 29% for geographic location. Market access and prices are key economic drivers in this area. The Njombe-Penja area is part of the Littoral region of Cameroon, with access to the biggest city in Cameroon, Douala, with over 2 million inhabitants, a port city and an outlet to the international market. This area is situated along national road number 10, linking Douala to the western highland of Cameroon. These economic drivers are as follows: 29% for income level, 38% for market access and 34% for prices. The Penja peppercorn, for instance, now sells at 14,000 FCFA (USD 22) per kilogram, compared to 600 FCFA (USD 1) in the recent past before it became a prized ingredient. The rising price of this cherished crop is even pushing farmers to switch from traditional cash crops like coffee and cocoa to the production of Penja peppercorns. Respondents’ perceptions categorize social drivers at groupings/social gatherings (11%), social status (12%), social infrastructure (24%), communication (24%) and transport development (36%). Through their social status, some key stakeholders, especially wealthy farmers, use their power, and social gatherings or groupings that are very important, such as migrants such as “Bamilekes” and “Anglophones”, tend to bring relations and introduce them into the domains they are engaged in, especially in agriculture, showing them methods and techniques and even offering financial assistance in resource use practices. Customs/traditions (33%), beliefs (62%) and taboos (5%) are the main cultural drivers, while political learnings (55%) and elitism (44%) account for political drivers in the landscape. Some elites facilitate the acquisition and use of fertilizers and other inputs like improved seedlings, depending on their political inclination. Nevertheless, several channels of diffusion facilitate innovations and portray a diversity of drivers with different implications in resource use practices.

As identified by the population (

Table 7. Level of adoption of innovation by gender.

Resource	Gender	Fast	Moderate	Slow	Chi-Square
Land	Females	65.9%	29.5%	4.5%	X2 = 4.212 p = 0.122
	Males	58.9%	23.2%	17.9%
Water	Females	15.9%	50%	34.1%	X2 = 0.489 p =0.783
	Males	21.4%	46.4%	32.2%
Quarries	Females	25%	61.4%	13.6%	X2 = 1.265 p = 0.531
	Males	26.8%	51.8%	21.4%
Forests	Females	65.9%	20.5%	13.6%	X2 = 0.116 p = 0.944
	Males	64.3%	19.6%	16.1%

), the key natural drivers for innovation in natural resource use along the Mungo corridor hollow frontier are the location of the area (reported by 36%), relief (reported by 29%), drainage (reported by 24%) and climate (reported by 20%). With respect to economic factors, income levels (reported by 29%), market access (reported by 42%) and the price of produce (reported by 35%) were the key drivers identified. For the social drivers, communication (reported by 24%), social gatherings (reported by 21%), the presence of social infrastructure (reported by 25%) and transport development (reported by 35%) were identified. Customs and traditions (reported by 38%) and beliefs (reported by 62%) were the two cultural drivers identified. Lastly, elitism and political learning (reported by 45% and 55%, respectively) were the political drivers for innovation in natural resource use identified along the Mungo corridor hollow frontier. Nevertheless, market access, location, political learnings, elitism and beliefs are the most significant drivers amongst others (Figure 5). The level of adoption by status is reported in

Table 8. Level of adoption of innovation by status.

Resource	Status	Fast	Moderate	Slow	Chi-Square
Land	Indigene	60.5%	28.9%	10.5%	X2 = 0.337 p = 0.845
	Migrant	62.9%	24.2%	12.9%
Water	Indigene	21.1%	47.4%	31.6%	X2 = 0.179 p = 0.915
	Migrant	17.7%	48.4%	33.9%
Quarries	Indigene	28.9%	55.3%	15.8%	X2 = 0.377 p = 0.828
	Migrant	24.2%	56.5%	19.4%
Forests	Indigene	52.6%	21.1%	26.3%	X2 = 6.708 p = 0.035
	Migrant	72.6%	19.4%	8.1%

.

4.5. Natural Resource Management Implications

The implications of innovations in natural resource management in Njombe-Penja are profound and are visible through land, water, forest and quarries. Innovations in land have diverse implications. According to the respondents, land scarcity (27%) and a decline in wasteland (24%) is the most significant implication of innovations in land management. With more capital and new techniques of cultivation and irrigation, a lot of large land holdings were acquired by wealthy farmers due to growing interest, bringing new dynamics in land costs. Moreover, there are land developments; more planned small agro-plantations have been set up across the landscape, especially for the cultivation of cash-fetching crops, notably peppercorns (white pepper, Penja pepper), pineapples, pawpaw and cocoa. There is thus a more appropriate and optimal use of land resources, with proper land planning or development. Furthermore, new improved species of crops continue to be introduced into the land. Through IRAD, through elite farmers, through migrants, and through PHP, new species of cassava, plantains, banana, cocoa, pineapples and pawpaw are constantly cultivated in this area. With better land management, there is reduction in land conflicts (27%) in the area, but with the least significant implications being a response of 12% for better land use development and an increase in land costs (13%) (Figure 6).

In the quarries, land use has evolved enormously, with demands made for pozzolana for cement fabrication by the Dangote cement factory in Douala. More machines have been brought in, and the excavation of materials takes place in larger quantities through semi-mechanized methods. In fact, in response to demand, gravel crushing and stone extraction is taking place in increased volumes and is changing the landscape. With a steady demand, more jobs have been created at the quarry, with quarry workers talking of improvements in their wages from about 50,000 FRS to 75,000, to minimum salaries now at 115,000 FCFA and even more. According to a respondent who is a quarry worker, with the new industrial dimension of the quarry, since 2018 at least 1 million FCFA is dedicated to financing micro-projects for the benefit of disadvantage groups. Also, the quarry provides 100 times 15 m³ of pozzolana to the council. Companies are now subject to first obtaining a prospecting permit for new sites or an access authorization for old quarries, according to the stipulations of the mining code of 2017. People perceived changes in quarries variably (Figure 7): change in the landscape (23%), improved methods of extraction (10%), increased crushing and supply (45%) and pollution (19%).

Innovations in water resources sustained by the water management company Cameroon Water Management (CAMWATER, SNEC), the Njombe-Penja council and the PHP company have improved water quality and water availability across the two communities. First, these stakeholders have diversified the sources of water and improved the portable water supply. Secondly, there is reduction in the water crisis and a more constant water supply (Figure 8). Respondents affirm that they now have a more constant reliable water supply throughout the year, which has gone a long way to reducing the old struggles they use dto face during the dry seasons with shortages in supply and people carrying water from doubtful sources. Third, there has been an improvement in water quality and decline in waterborne diseases. With the involvement of SNEC and the council, with support from the German Technical Cooperation Corporation (GTZ), the quality of water has improved for household use.

Innovations and forest management in the Njombe-Penja are largely managed by the conservation service of the sub-divisional delegation of forestry for Penja. The implications are visible in the landscape. The conservation of the forest has limited random exploitation and reduced the extraction of forest resources (Figure 9). According to the population, it has also contributed to protecting the environment and preserving the ecosystem (12%). It has also reduced forest degradation and limited random exploitation (41%), with a change in forest size (17%). There are fines (5%) related to the diversity of trees, and there is now selective exploitation. There is a decline in poaching and the exploitation of protected species. Moreover, there has also been a reduction in conflicts (9%) in forest resource use.

5. Discussion

Different natural resources are exploited by different actors for multiple ends in the Njombe-Penja hollow frontier, and there are different innovations introduced. It is therefore evident that the innovation diffusion lens is important. The research sought to (1) map key the resources and actors engaged in the Mungo corridor hollow frontier, (2) analyze the differential patterns of innovations and the forces that drive them and (3) explore the management implications of resource-linked innovation diffusion. With different innovations and different actors interacting relating to different resources, diverse implications are involved in the diffusion process.

The results reveal that the key natural resources attracting different actors in the Njombe-Penja area, ranked according to their importance, are available fertile land, water, quarries and forest resources. Both state and non-state actors are engaged in the Mungo corridor, with state actors very much playing the role of initiating and channeling innovations, notably MINADER, IRAD, MINFOF and SNEC. Non-state actors, especially P.H.P., NGOs, local village councils, individuals and community members, are also key actors in resource use, initiating and adopting (or not) innovations. While the interest of the state actors is in channeling innovations and bringing improvements, non-state (including community) actors are interested in having more access to land resources. The results also reveal a huge migrant population, making 62% of the population, largely of a youthful and adult population coming from different regions of Cameroon, engage in results. It is therefore noted that multiple actors are engaged in the Mungo corridor, attracted by key natural resources and sustaining innovations across the landscape. It is revealed that natural resources, notably fertile soils, constitute the key attracting pool for the Cameroon hollow frontiers of the Mungo corridor. This is very much similar to natural resources, especially in agriculture and plantations around forests [21,25,26,27], in countries like Argentina, Brazil [11] Columbia and Venezuela [15], using hierarchical clusters attracting people around hollow frontiers.

This study observed that innovations spread at different speeds. Innovations on land and agriculture (innovation 1) were fast (62%), just like those in forests (innovation 4), (65%) and were the most significant. This signifies that fruit culture, stem support systems and improved disease-resistant species on larger land holdings are largely adopted by the population, just like agroforestry and other forest-related innovations. Innovations in water resources (innovation 2, 48%) were the least significant and are moderately advancing but with good implications for improvements in agricultural production through irrigation and increased productivity. Ref. [15] argues that in Latin America, innovations spread from hierarchical clusters, while in Japan–Asia, technological innovations follow more market-based and performance standard approaches [28]. The Njombe-Penja communities show more of a market-based approach, driven innovations spreading gradually, with leap-frogging cases scattered across the landscape. Market access and prices are the main economic drivers that spur innovations, amongst others. There are therefore differential patterns, with the early adopters more among migrants than indigenes.

The implications of resource-linked innovations are visible across sectors. Fruit culture is one of the fundamental land use impacts. This very significant impact is seen through the more appropriate and optimal use of land resources, with proper land planning or development by farmers. Furthermore, new improved species of fruits continue to be introduced into the land. Through IRAD, through elite farmers, through migrants and through PHP, new species of banana, pineapples and pawpaw are increasingly cultivated in this area. With better land management, there is better land use development for fruit culture, among others. Meanwhile, [29] argues that such innovations, with a faster pace and impacts, are due to a competitive advantage. Refs. [5,8,22] further justify that market forces and performance stand tall amongst drivers, fueling most significant impacts. The least significant implications are those for quarrying, noted with environmental pollution. With innovations in quarries, material development is, however, improved upon for both artisanal and industrial use. This corresponds to what [21] notes, that these minerals and materials are extracted, processed, manufactured and used locally by the construction, manufacturing or agricultural industries. Ref. [30] highlights that these minerals represent, in developing countries, an effective response to local development, governed by small-scale labor-intensive artisanal mining activities, as well as medium-scale mechanized quarries. This is the case for pyroclastic materials (pozzolana extraction in Penja). However, the challenge with such innovations in resource management is meeting societal demands with low costs and reducing environmental problems or the destruction of the ecosystems.

It is evident that there are implications for resource use practices and livelihood improvement, but they demonstrate mixed outcomes. Innovations that took the form of hierarchical clusters shaped land use through plantation agriculture in Latin America [15] and ranching in the Mexico Yucatan area [18]. The situation of the Mungo corridor of Cameroon presents farmers and different stakeholders, with different limited technical and financial capacities, impacting resource use differently. In the Mungo corridor, notably the Njombe-Penja hollow frontier, several actors, both formal and informal, are involved and shape resource use practices, through stakeholder to farmer and farmer to farmer channels, with different results. Ref. [31] reports that in many African countries, innovation ecosystems are nascent, with innovators limited by the fundamental challenges of financing for research and development, governance and regulatory structures, access to inputs, business support and infrastructure. Ref. [3] notes that institutions, both formal and informal, shape the behavior and actions of resource users in different settings. Through their commitment, institutions at the interface of environmental and socio-economic systems provide different approaches to changing resource circumstances to optimize resource use and outcomes [32]. As such, there is farmer to farmer, social group to farmer and state and non-state institutions to resource users’ innovation diffusion, to optimize resource use under changing socio-economic and environmental circumstances. Very important is that there is a need for the pro-active and strategic participation of heterogeneous stakeholders, both indigenes and migrants, with different channels of exchange in the process of the diffusion of ideas, techniques, species and resources, to produce (sub)optimal resource use.

6. Conclusions

The Njombe-Penja hollow frontier in the Mungo corridor of Cameroon is a natural resource-rich area attracting people from all over the country. So many migrants have come in waves, exploring the rich resource base that constitutes the springboard to which others continue to be attracted. The innovation diffusion model presents a useful lens to understand innovations and their resource-linked impacts. Some key conclusions can be drawn. There are key actors, such as MINAGRI, IRAD and farmers engaged in land resources for agriculture, SNEC, GTZ and the council involved in water resource development and the SEPT company engaged in quarry exploitation. But power issues warrant more investigation among the stakeholders in resource use, as hollow frontees, coming notably from the North-West, West and South-West Regions, arrive to exploit the rich resource base of fertile land, forest, quarry and water resources in the area. Also, these actors sustain multivariable different innovations introduced in the area over the years, which trickle down following differential patterns, with those in agriculture being faster. The most relevant channels are MINAGRI/IRAD to farmers, farmer to farmer and NGOs to farmers, and others like supply organization to farmers and agro-industrial and extension services to farmers. The interactions of actors to obtain optimum outcomes still need to be further investigated, given the interest of the actors. Mono-cropping systems have emerged, with cash-oriented crops like the Njombe-Penja white pepper, cocoa, plantains and fruit cultivation, especially pawpaw and pineapples. Innovations in agriculture proved to move faster than others. In quarrying, new exploitation techniques emerged as the key innovation, increasing production and supply, though pollution remains a major problem. With water resources, more stakeholders like the council, GTZ and SNEC assisted in diversifying water sources, improving quality and ameliorating the supply to be more constant or steady. Forest resources have witnessed better control and improvement in management, with the better rational exploitation of resources and limitations in conflicts. All these innovations are driven in the Njombe-Penja hollow frontier by natural drivers (fertile soils, relief, drainage and climate), economic drivers (notably market access and prices), social drivers (groupings/social gatherings, social status, social infrastructure, communication and transport development) and political drivers (political learnings and elitism). These diverse drivers spur differential patterns of the diffusion of new ideas, techniques and developments in key resources like land, quarries, water and forests in the area. The impacts of innovation are visible in resource use: better land management practices, a reduction in conflicts and increase in production for land resources, improved methods and increases in production and pollution in quarrying, a better quality and constant steady water supply, rational forest exploitation strategies and a reduction in degradation stand out. A more comprehensive analysis could be undertaken to study the power dimension, to understand how this facilitates the development of useful innovations or how it ensures what is introduced is sustained and limits what is not needed. Future research can focus on examining the power perception of innovation diffusion in natural resource management in this area, which is yet to be explored.