Geosciences, Volume 9, Issue 8 (August 2019) – 37 articles

Landslides are one of the most damaging geological hazards in mountainous regions such as the Himalayas. The Himalayan region is, tectonically, the most active region in the world that is highly vulnerable to landslides and associated hazards. Landslide susceptibility mapping (LSM) is a useful tool for understanding the probability of the spatial distribution of future landslide regions. In this research, the landslide inventory datasets were collected during the field study of the Kullu valley in July 2018, and 149 landslide locations were collected as global positioning system (GPS) points. The present study evaluates the LSM using three different spatial resolution of the digital elevation model (DEM) derived from three different sources. The data-driven traditional frequency ratio (FR) model was used for this study. The FR model was used for this research to assess the impact of the different spatial resolution of DEMs on the LSM. DEM data was derived from Advanced Land Observing Satellite-1 (ALOS) Phased Array type L-band Synthetic Aperture Radar (PALSAR) ALOS-PALSAR for 12.5 m, the Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer (ASTER) Global for 30 m, and the Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) for 90 m. As an input, we used eight landslide conditioning factors based on the study area and topographic features of the Kullu valley in the Himalayas. The ASTER-Global 30m DEM showed higher accuracy of 0.910 compared to 0.839 for 12.5 m and 0.824 for 90 m DEM resolution. This study shows that that 30 m resolution is better suited for LSM for the Kullu valley region in the Himalayas. The LSM can be used for mitigation and future planning for spatial planners and developmental authorities in the region. Full article

Morphologically diverse organo-sedimentary structures (including microbial mats and stromatolites) provide a palaeobiological record through more than three billion years of Earth history. Since understanding much of the Archaean fossil record is contingent upon proving the biogenicity of such structures, mechanistic interpretations of well-preserved fossil microbialites can reinforce our understanding of their biogeochemistry and distinguish unambiguous biological characteristics in these structures, which represent some of the earliest records of life. Mechanistic morphogenetic understanding relies upon the analysis of geomicrobiological experiments. Herein, we report morphological-biogeochemical comparisons between micromorphologies observed in growth experiments using photosynthetic mats built by the cyanobacterium Coleofasciculus chthonoplastes (formerly Microcoleus) and green anoxygenic phototrophic Chloroflexus spp. (i.e., Coleofasciculus–Chloroflexus mats), and Precambrian organo-sedimentary structures, demonstrating parallels between them. In elevated ambient concentrations of Cu (toxic to Coleofasciculus), Coleofasciculus–Chloroflexus mats respond by forming centimetre-scale pinnacle-like structures (supra-lamina complexities) associated with large quantities of EPS at their surfaces. µPIXE mapping shows that Cu and other metals become concentrated within surficial sheath-EPS-Chloroflexus-rich layers, producing density-differential micromorphologies with distinct fabric orientations that are detectable using X-ray computed micro-tomography (X-ray µCT). Similar micromorphologies are also detectable in stromatolites from the 3.481 Ga Dresser Formation (Pilbara, Western Australia). The cause and response link between the presence of toxic elements (geochemical stress) and the development of multi-layered topographical complexities in organo-sedimentary structures may thus be considered an indicator of biogenicity, being an indisputably biological and predictable morphogenetic response reflecting, in this case, the differential responses of Coleofasciculus and Chloroflexus to Cu. Growth models for microbialite morphogenesis rely upon linking morphology to intrinsic (biological) and extrinsic (environmental) influences. Since the pinnacles of Coleofasciculus–Chloroflexus mats have an unambiguously biological origin linked to extrinsic geochemistry, we suggest that similar micromorphologies observed in ancient organo-sedimentary structures are indicative of biogenesis. An identical Coleofasciculus–Chloroflexus community subjected to salinity stress also produced supra-lamina complexities (tufts) but did not produce identifiable micromorphologies in three dimensions since salinity seems not to negatively impact either organism, and therefore cannot be used as a morphogenetic tool for the interpretation of density-homogeneous micro-tufted mats—for example, those of the 3.472 Ga Middle Marker horizon. Thus, although correlative microscopy is the keystone to confirming the biogenicity of certain Precambrian stromatolites, it remains crucial to separately interrogate each putative trace of ancient life, ideally using three-dimensional analyses, to determine, where possible, palaeoenvironmental influences on morphologies. Widespread volcanism and hydrothermal effusion into the early oceans likely concentrated toxic elements in early biomes. Morphological diversity in fossil microbialites could, therefore, reflect either (or both of) differential exposure to ambient fluids enriched in toxic elements and/or changing ecosystem structure and tolerance to elements through evolutionary time—for example, after incorporation into enzymes. Proof of biogenicity by deducing morphogenesis (i.e., a process preserved in the fossil record) overcomes many of the shortcomings inherent to the proof of biogenicity by descriptions of morphology alone. Full article

The primary stratigraphic fabric of a chaotic rock unit in the Zermatt Saas ophiolite of the Western Alps was reworked by a polyphase Alpine tectonic deformation. Multiscalar structural criteria demonstrate that this unit was deformed by two ductile subduction-related phases followed by brittle-ductile then brittle deformation. Deformation partitioning operated at various scales, leaving relatively unstrained rock domains preserving internal texture, organization, and composition. During subduction, ductile deformation involved stretching, boudinage, and simultaneous folding of the primary stratigraphic succession. This deformation is particularly well-documented in alternating layers showing contrasting deformation style, such as carbonate-rich rocks and turbiditic serpentinite metasandstones. During collision and exhumation, deformation enhanced the boudinaged horizons and blocks, giving rise to spherical to lozenge-shaped blocks embedded in a carbonate-rich matrix. Structural criteria allow the recognition of two main domains within the chaotic rock unit, one attributable to original broken formations reflecting turbiditic sedimentation, the other ascribable to an original sedimentary mélange. The envisaged geodynamic setting for the formation of the protoliths is the Jurassic Ligurian-Piedmont ocean basin floored by mostly serpentinized peridotites, intensely tectonized by extensional faults that triggered mass transport processes and turbiditic sedimentation. Full article

Engineering for flood resilience of dense coastal regions often neglects the resultant impact on urban design quality. Vital subsurface infrastructure such as hydraulic systems, water networks, civil construction, transport, energy supply and soil systems are especially important in shaping the urban environment and integrating resilience. However, the complexity and resource intensive nature of these engineering domains make it a challenge to incorporate them into design measures. In the process of planning, this impedes proactive collaboration between the design and engineering communities. This study presents a collaborative design engineering exercise undertaken to find spatial solutions to flood-prone Edogawa ward in Tokyo, Japan. The team included urbanists, hydraulic engineers, water resource managers, and landscape architects. Hydraulic engineering solutions were combined with spatial planning methods to deliver two alternative strategies for the chosen site. Each alternative was then evaluated for its urban design quality and effectiveness in reducing flood risk. The exercise highlighted that successful design requires comprehensive interdisciplinary collaboration to arrive at a sustainable bargain between hard and soft measures. Full article

Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV) are a rapidly evolving tool in geosciences and are increasingly deployed for studying the dynamic processes of the earth’s surface. To assess the potential of autonomous low-cost UAVs for the mapping and monitoring of alpine glaciers, we conducted multiple aerial surveys on the Kanderfirn in the Swiss Alps in 2017 and 2018 using open hardware and software of the Paparazzi UAV project. The open-source photogrammetry software OpenDroneMap was tested for the generation of high-resolution orthophotos and digital surface models (DSMs) from aerial imagery and cross-checked with the well-established proprietary software Pix4D. Accurately measured ground control points served for the determination of the geometric accuracy of the orthophotos and DSMs. A horizontal (xy) accuracy of 0.7–1.2 m and a vertical (z) accuracy of 0.7–2.1 m was achieved for OpenDroneMap, compared to a xy-accuracy of 0.3–0.5 m and a z-accuracy of 0.4–0.5 m obtained for Pix4D. Based on the analysis and comparison of different orthophotos and DSMs, surface elevation, roughness and brightness changes from 3 June to 29 September 2018 were quantified. While the brightness of the glacier surface decreased linearly over the ablation season, the surface roughness increased. The mean DSM-based elevation change across the glacier tongue was 8 m, overestimating the measured melting and surface lowering at the installed ablation stakes by about 1.5 m. The presented results highlight that self-built fixed-wing UAVs in tandem with open-source photogrammetry software are an affordable alternative to commercial remote-sensing platforms and proprietary software. The applied low-cost approach also provides great potential for other regions and geoscientific disciplines. Full article

A growing interest appears among public authorities and society in accurate and nearly real time aftershock forecasting to manage and mitigate post-seismic risk. Existing methods for aftershock forecasting are strongly affected by the incompleteness of the instrumental datasets available soon after the main shock occurrence. The deficit of observed events, in the first part of aftershock sequences, can be naturally attributed to various mechanisms such as the inefficiency of the seismic network and the overlap of earthquake signals in seismic records. In this review, we show that short-term aftershock incompleteness can be explained only in terms of the second mechanism, whereas it is only weakly affected by the quality of the instrumental coverage. We then illustrate how standard models for earthquake forecasting can be modified to take into account this incompleteness. In particular, we focus on forecasting methods based on the data available in real time, in which many events are missing and the uncertainty in hypocenter location is considerable. We present retrospective tests that demonstrate the usefulness of these novel methods compared with traditional ones, which implement average values of parameters obtained from previous sequences. Full article

Deuterostomes make a sudden appearance in the fossil record during the early Cambrian. Two bilaterian groups, the chordates and the vetulicolians, are of particular interest for understanding early deuterostome evolution, and the main objective of this review is to examine the Cambrian diversity of these two deuterostome groups. The subject is of particular interest because of the link to vertebrates, and because of the enigmatic nature of vetulicolians. Lagerstätten in China and elsewhere have dramatically improved our understanding of the range of variation in these ancient animals. Cephalochordate and vertebrate body plans are well established at least by Cambrian Series 2. Taken together, roughly a dozen chordate genera and fifteen vetulicolian genera document part of the explosive radiation of deuterostomes at the base of the Cambrian. The advent of deuterostomes near the Cambrian boundary involved both a reversal of gut polarity and potentially a two-sided retinoic acid gradient, with a gradient discontinuity at the midpoint of the organism that is reflected in the sharp division of vetulicolians into anterior and posterior sections. A new vetulicolian (Shenzianyuloma yunnanense nov. gen. nov. sp.) with a laterally flattened, polygonal anterior section provides significant new data regarding vetulicolians. Its unsegmented posterior region (‘tail’) bears a notochord and a gut trace with diverticula, both surrounded by myotome cones. Full article

The diagnosis of the geoecological state of natural landscapes during the economic development of the permafrost zone should be established by assessing destructive cryogenic processes. Furthermore, the geoecological state should be considered in terms of landscape resistance to an increase in cryogenic processes. In this paper, we examine and determine lithocryogenic stability parameters, including permafrost distribution over an area, annual mean temperature, ice content (humidity), and the protective properties of the vegetation. Activation of cryogenic processes in Western Siberia was estimated in terms of the area, development rate and attenuation, natural landscape damage, and hazards to engineering and mining facility operations. The evaluation procedure and the improvement in expert numerical scores are shown. A number of approved methods are proposed for creating assessment maps at various scales using landscape indication methods, decoded satellite images, expert assessments, statistical calculations, and analysis of spatial geographical information systems. Methodical techniques for digital geocryological mapping on the basis of the landscape are presented at scales from 1:3,000,000 to 1:20,000,000. All the maps were created by the authors and can be used for a wide range of applications, including design, survey organizations, and education. Full article

This paper presents results of undrained and unconsolidated (UU) triaxial tests related to the influence of tire waste addition on strength characteristics of red clay from Patoka in Southern Poland. Angle of internal friction and cohesion values were estimated for 30 specimens prepared from pure red clay (RC), its mixtures with two different fractions of shredded rubber in 5%, 10%, and 25% mass proportions as well as for pure powder (P) and granulate (G). It has been observed that the addition of granulate contributes more to the increase in the angle of friction than the addition of powder (ΔΦ_uu = +1% (G-5) / +16% (G-10) / +31% (G-25), ΔΦ_uu = +1% (P-5) / +10% (P-10) / +19% (P-25)). On the other hand, rubber additions reduce cohesion in mixtures, and the effect is enhanced with increases in their grain size and percentage composition (Δc_uu = −31% (G-5) / −63% (G-10) / −87% (G-25), Δc_uu = −67% (P-5) / −58% (P-10) / −58% (P-25)). It has been noticed that a change of parameters Φ_uu and c_uu causes a decline of shear stresses at increasing granulate content. There is an inverse relationship for powder. At the same time, it has been shown that the failure strain, hence a change in red clay-rubber (RCR) mixtures plasticity, is related to the level of confining stress σ₃ and the type of rubber waste. Results of tests and their comparison with results of other researchers show that each time it is necessary to experimentally verify a given soil with specific rubber waste. Full article

To solve the inverse gravimetric problem, i.e., to estimate the mass density distribution that generates a certain gravitational field, at local or regional scale, several parameters have to be defined such as the dimension of the 3D region to be considered for the inversion, its spatial resolution, the size of its border, etc. Determining the ideal setting for these parameters is in general difficult: theoretical solutions are usually not possible, while empirical ones strongly depend on the specific target of the inversion and on the experience of the user performing the computation. The aim of the present work is to discuss empirical strategies to set these parameters in such a way to avoid distortions and errors within the inversion. In particular, the discussion is focused on the choice of the volume of the model to be inverted, the size of its boundary, its spatial resolution, and the spatial resolution of the a-priori information to be used within the data reduction. The magnitude of the possible effects due to a wrong choice of the above parameters is also discussed by means of numerical examples. Full article

The main purpose of this study is to comparatively assess the susceptibility of earthquake-triggered landslides in the island of Lefkada (Ionian Islands, Greece) using two different statistical analysis models, a bivariate model represented by frequency ratio (FR), and a multivariate model represented by logistic regression (LR). For the implementation of the models, the relationship between geo-environmental factors contributing to landslides and documented events related to the 17th November 2015 earthquake was investigated by geographic information systems (GIS)-based analysis. A landslide inventory with events attributed to the specific earthquake was prepared using satellite imagery interpretation and field surveys. Eight factors: Elevation, slope angle, slope aspect, distance to main road network, distance to faults, land cover, geology, and peak ground acceleration (PGA), were considered and used as thematic data layers. The prediction capability of the models and the accuracy of the resulting susceptibility maps were tested by a standard validation method, the receiver operator characteristic (ROC) analysis. Based on the validation results, the output map with the highest reliability could potentially constitute an ideal basis for use within regional spatial planning as well as for the organization of emergency actions by local authorities. Full article

Understanding the impacts of tsunamis, especially in terms of damage and losses, is important for disaster mitigation and management. The aim of this study is to present our estimations of the potential losses from tsunami damage on Okinawa Island. We combine the use of a tsunami hazard map and our proposed economic loss model to estimate the potential losses that would be sustained by Okinawa Island in the event of a tsunami. First, to produce the tsunami hazard map, we calculated tsunami flow characteristics using the mathematical model TUNAMI-N2 and incorporating 6 earthquake fault scenarios around the study area. The earthquake scenarios are based on historical records along the Ryukyu Trench and the Okinawa. The resulting inundation map is overlaid with economic land use type and topography maps to identify vulnerable regions, which are then employed to compute potential economic losses. Second, we used our proposed economic model for this study area to calculate the potential losses that would be sustained in these vulnerable regions. Our economic model extends the multi-regional-input-output (MRIO) model, where the economic values of industrial sectors are scaled to correlate with land use and topography types (coastal and inland areas) to calculate losses through the Chenery–Moses estimation method. Direct losses can be estimated from the total input of the MRIO table, while indirect losses are computed from the direct losses and interaction parameter of the MRIO table. The interaction parameter is formed by linear programming and calculated using the Leontief methodology. Our results show that the maximum total damaged area under the 6 earthquake scenarios is approximately 30 km². Inundation ranging from 2.0 to 5.0 m in depth covers the largest area of approximately 10 km² and is followed by areas with inundation depths of 1.0–2.0 m and >5.0 m. Our findings show that direct losses will occur, while indirect losses are only approximately 56% that of direct losses. This approach could be applied to other areas and tsunami scenarios, which will aid disaster management and adaptation policies. Full article

The study area is located in NW Sardinia Island (Italy), Mediterranean Sea. Sardinia is considered stable since the late Pliocene with a negligible subsidence of about 0.01 mm/y. It is therefore normally used to reconstruct the Pleistocene and Holocene sea level curves. Our research focusses on the sea-facing city of Alghero that from 1353 to 1720 was under the Spanish government. During this time, the city was renovated and new buildings edified. Dimension stones were quarried all around Alghero both in the nearby inland and along the coast. Coastal quarries were considered the most suitable for both rock quality and the easiest way to transport the quarried material by boat. The quarried rocks are late Pleistocene dune and beach sandstones deposited from the 132 ka (Marine Isotopic Stage—MIS5) to about 65 ka (MIS4). Sandstones crop out from few cm to 3 m above the present sea level and underwent several consolidation processes related to loading and marine weathering. This latter favoured dissolution and circulation of calcium carbonate which cemented the rocks. It is reported that the Spanish were looking for these “marine” sandstones for their high geotechnical characteristics. Different rules were adopted through time for the size of the dimension stones and this has allowed us to establish a quarry exploitation chronology. For example, “40 × 60 × 20” cm was the size of the dimension stones used for the Alghero Cathedral dated at 1505–1593. Nowadays most of the coastal Spanish quarry floors are 30 centimetres below mean sea level (tidal range is 30 cm). Accordingly, we infer that relative sea level from 1830 AD (and of the Little Ice Age) rose in about 200 years to the present level at the rate of about 1.4 mm/y. Considering that relative sea level rise during the Medieval warm period was of 0.6 mm/y over a period of about 400 years, we may deduce that human influence was strong enough to lead to a relative sea-level rise faster and in shorter time. Full article

Structural pounding during earthquakes may cause substantial damage to colliding structures. The phenomenon is numerically studied using different models of collisions. The aim of the present paper is to propose an effective formula for the impact damping ratio, as a parameter of the impact force model used to study different problems of structural pounding under seismic excitations. Its accuracy has been verified by four various approaches. Firstly, for the case of collisions between two structural elements, the dissipated energy during impact has been compared to the loss of kinetic energy. In the second stage of verifications, the peak impact forces during single collision have been analyzed. Then, the accuracy of different equations have been verified by comparing the impact force time histories for the situation when a concrete ball is dropped on a rigid concrete surface. Finally, pounding between two structures during earthquakes has been studied. The results of the analysis focused on comparison between dissipated and kinetic energy show relatively low errors between calculated and assumed values of the coefficient of restitution when the proposed equation is used. In addition, the results of the comparison between experimentally and numerically determined peak impact forces during single collision confirm the effectiveness of the approach. The same conclusion has been obtained for the whole impact time history for collision between a ball and a rigid surface. Finally, the results of the comparative analysis, conducted for pounding between two structures during an earthquake, confirm the simulation accuracy when the proposed approach is used. The above conclusions indicate that the proposed formula for impact damping ratio, as a parameter of impact force model for simulation of earthquake-induced structural pounding, is very effective and accurate in numerical simulations in the case of different scenarios. Full article

Water transformation around Antarctica is recognized to significantly impact the climate. It is where the linkage between the upper and lower limbs of the Meridional Overturning Circulation (MOC) takes place by means of dense water formation, which may be affected by rapid climate change. Simulation results from the Community Earth System Model Last Millennium Ensemble (CESM–LME) are used to investigate the Weddell Sea Warm Deep Water (WDW) evolution during the Last Millennium (LM). The WDW is the primary heat source for the Weddell Sea (WS) and accounts for 71% of the Weddell Sea Bottom Water (WSBW), which is the regional variety of the Antarctic Bottom Water (AABW)—one of the densest water masses in the ocean bearing directly on the cold deep limb of the MOC. Earth System Models (ESMs) are known to misrepresent the deep layers of the ocean (below 2000 m), hence we aim at the upper component of the deep meridional overturning cell, i.e., the WDW. Salinity and temperature results from the CESM–LME from a transect crossing the WS are evaluated with the Optimum Multiparameter Analysis (OMP) water masses decomposition scheme. It is shown that, after a long–term cooling over the LM, a warming trend takes place at the surface waters in the WS during the 20th century, which is coherent with a global expression. The subsurface layers and. mainly. the WDW domain are subject to the same long–term cooling trend, which is decelerated after 1850 (instead of becoming warmer like the surface waters), probably due interactions with sea ice–insulated ambient waters. The evolution of this anomalous temperature pattern for the WS is clear throughout the three major LM climatic episodes: the Medieval Climate Anomaly (MCA), Little Ice Age (LIA) and late 20th century warming. Along with the continuous decline of WDW core temperatures, heat content in the water mass also decreases by 18.86%. OMP results indicate shoaling and shrinking of the WDW during the LM, with a ~6% decrease in its cross–sectional area. Although the AABW cannot be directly assessed from CESM–LME results, changes in the WDW structure and WS dynamics have the potential to influence the deep/bottom water formation processes and the global MOC. Full article

The Djibouti Ville Drift is part of a contourite depositional system located on the southern side of the Djibouti Ville Seamount in the Alboran Sea (Western Mediterranean). The sedimentary record of a core located in the drift deposits has been characterized to achieve the possible sediment sources for the Saharan dust supply and the paleocurrent variability related to Mediterranean intermediate waters for the last 133 kyr. Three end-member grain-size distributions characterize the sediment record transported by the bottom current to address the different aeolian populations, i.e., coarse EM1, silty EM2, and fine EM3. For these particles, the most likely source areas are the Saharan sedimentary basins and deserts, as well as the cratonic basins of the Sahara-Sahel Dust Corridor. The prevalence of these main source areas is shown in the core record, where a noticeable change occurs during the MIS 5 to MIS 4 transition. Some punctual sediment inputs from the seamount have been recognized during sea-level lowstand, but there is no evidence of fluvial supply in the drift deposits. The paleocurrent reconstruction allows the characterizing of the stadial and cold periods by large increases in the mean sortable silt fraction and UP10, which point to an enhanced bottom current strength related to intermediate water masses. Conversely, interglacial periods are characterized by weaker bottom current activity, which is associated with denser deep water masses. These proxies also recorded the intensified Saharan wind transport that occurred during interstadial/stadial transitions. All these results point to the importance of combining sediment source areas with major climatic oscillations and paleocurrent variability in palaeoceanographic sedimentary archives, which may help to develop future climate prediction models. Full article

Suspended, organic matter, especially in the form of adhesive extracellular polymers (EPS), tends to form flocs, which may also incorporate suspended lithogenic particles in coastal environments. With an increased settling velocity, these ballasted flocs form in a narrow zone along the coast and potentially represent a major source of pelagic primary production for the benthic community. We sought support for this hypothesis by examining our measurements of the mud content, porosity, permeability, pigment content, and specific respiration rate of sediment from the German Bight (North Sea) for signs that the pelagic zone of ballasted floc formation is affecting the local sediment characteristics. Based on a simple bottom-shear stress model and by employing empirical correlations of sediment characteristics we were able to find strong indications that this is actually the case. Our results demonstrate how ballasted flocs contribute to the benthic pelagic coupling in a high turbulence environment. Full article

The present structure of the Iberia–Africa plate boundary between the Gorringe Bank and the Algerian Basin is characterized by a highly segmented geometry and diffused seismicity. Filtered Bouguer gravity data show conspicuous highs coinciding with the Gorringe Bank, the Guadalquivir–Portimao Bank, and the Ronda/Beni–Bousera massifs, reflecting the current geometry of the plate boundary segments. The Africa–Eurasia Alpine convergence produced crustal-scale thrusting in the Atlantic segments and roll-back subduction in the Ligurian–Tethys segments. Despite the growing consensus that the Gorringe and the Guadalquivir–Portimao Banks resulted from tectonic inversion of hyperextended margin structures inherited from the Early Jurassic, this heritage is more debatable for the Ronda/Beni–Bousera massifs lacking models linking the Atlantic and Mediterranean realms. On the basis of gravity analysis combined with plate reconstruction models, geological cross-sections, and recent local tomography, we infer a strong Jurassic heritage of the present-day segmentation and substantiate a comprehensive tectonic evolution model of the Iberia–Africa plate boundary since the Early Jurassic to Recent that includes the Atlantic and the Mediterranean domains. Full article

Arboreal epiphytes (plants residing in forest canopies) are present across all major climate zones and play important roles in forest biogeochemistry. The substantial water storage capacity per unit area of the epiphyte “bucket” is a key attribute underlying their capability to influence forest hydrological processes and their related mass and energy flows. It is commonly assumed that the epiphyte bucket remains saturated, or near-saturated, most of the time; thus, epiphytes (particularly vascular epiphytes) can store little precipitation, limiting their impact on the forest canopy water budget. We present evidence that contradicts this common assumption from (i) an examination of past research; (ii) new datasets on vascular epiphyte and epi-soil water relations at a tropical montane cloud forest (Monteverde, Costa Rica); and (iii) a global evaluation of non-vascular epiphyte saturation state using a process-based vegetation model, LiBry. All analyses found that the external and internal water storage capacity of epiphyte communities is highly dynamic and frequently available to intercept precipitation. Globally, non-vascular epiphytes spend <20% of their time near saturation and regionally, including the humid tropics, model results found that non-vascular epiphytes spend ~1/3 of their time in the dry state (0–10% of water storage capacity). Even data from Costa Rican cloud forest sites found the epiphyte community was saturated only 1/3 of the time and that internal leaf water storage was temporally dynamic enough to aid in precipitation interception. Analysis of the epi-soils associated with epiphytes further revealed the extent to which the epiphyte bucket emptied—as even the canopy soils were often <50% saturated (29–53% of all days observed). Results clearly show that the epiphyte bucket is more dynamic than currently assumed, meriting further research on epiphyte roles in precipitation interception, redistribution to the surface and chemical composition of “net” precipitation waters reaching the surface. Full article

Expansive Yazoo clay soil is susceptible to volumetric deformation and is dominant in central Mississippi and other neighboring southern states of the United States. Recurring shrink-swell behavior causes a significant problem to infrastructures in the area. Although Yazoo clay causes a significant problem in the deep southern states, limited study has been conducted on the behavior of Yazoo clay, especially in the presence of rainfall. The objective of this current study is to investigate the coupled effect of changes in void ratio due to wet-dry cycles and rainfall on the stability of highway slopes made of Yazoo clay. The finite element method in Plaxis 2D by Bentley System (https://www.plaxis.com/) has been utilized to investigate the coupled effect of changes in mechanical properties and rainfall using flow-deformation and stability analysis. Reconstituted expansive clay soil samples were used for the laboratory experiment. The reconstituted Yazoo clay samples were subjected to 3, 5, and 7 wetting and drying cycles in an enclosed chamber for a 24-h period. The axial deformation of the samples and the change in void ratios at each number of the cycle was closely monitored. The strength change at each wet and dry cycle was also investigated and used for slope stability analysis in the presence of rainfall. The test results indicate that the void ratio increases with the increasing number of wet-dry cycles. A continuous increment in void ratios from 0.99 in an undisturbed state with no wet-dry cycle to 1.49 at the 7th wet-dry cycle, indicating a 48.9% increase, as the wetting and drying cycle increases was recorded; in turn, decreasing the cohesion of the soil by 77%. The factor of safety considering the effect of two total rainfall periods of Rv = 126.2 mm (2 h) and Rv = 271.7 mm (3 days) reduced from 1.7 to 1.2 and 1.68 to 1.02, considering the effect of the 7th wet-dry cycle at the topsoil. The changes in the void ratio due to the wetting and drying cycle of Yazoo clay soil reduces the shear strength to a fully softened condition, increasing the possibility of slope failure. This condition further worsens in the presence of a perched water condition due to the infiltration of rain water. Full article

The Magallanes–Tierra del Fuego region, Southern Patagonia (53–56° S) features a plethora of fjords and remote and isolated islands, and hosts several thousand glaciers. The number of investigated glaciers with respect to the multiple Neoglacial advances is based on a few individual studies and is still fragmentary, which complicates the interpretation of the glacial dynamics in the southernmost part of America. Schiaparelli Glacier (54°24′ S, 70°50′ W), located at the western side of the Cordillera Darwin, was selected for tree-ring-based and radiocarbon dating of the glacial deposits. One focus of the study was to address to the potential dating uncertainties that arise by the use of Nothofagus spp. as a pioneer species. A robust analysis of the age–height relationship, missing the pith of the tree (pith offset), and site-specific ecesis time revealed a total uncertainty value of ±5–9 years. Three adjacent terminal moraines were identified, which increasingly tapered towards the glacier, with oldest deposition dates of 1749 ± 5 CE, 1789 ± 5 CE, and 1867 ± 5 CE. Radiocarbon dates of trunks incorporated within the terminal moraine system indicate at least three phases of cumulative glacial activity within the last 2300 years that coincide with the Neoglacial phases of the Southern Patagonian Icefield and adjacent mountain glaciers. The sub-recent trunks revealed the first evidence of a Neoglacial advance between ~600 BCE and 100 CE, which so far has not been substantiated in the Magallanes–Tierra del Fuego region. Full article

Traffic–induced vibrations may constitute a considerable load to buildings. In this paper, vibrations transmitted through the ground caused by wheeled vehicles are considered. This phenomenon may cause cracking of plaster, cracks in load-bearing elements or even, in extreme cases, collapse of the whole structure. Measurements of vibrations of real structures are costly and laborious. Therefore, the aim of the present paper is to propose a method of using Bayesian networks combined with implementation of geoscience for assessment of impact of traffic–induced vibrations on residential buildings. Firstly, the experimental tests were performed on different buildings using specialized equipment taking into account five factors: Distance from the building to the edge of the road, condition of road surface, condition of the building, the absorption of soil and the type of vehicle. Then, probabilistic analyses applying Bayesian networks were conducted and two methods of assessing the information value (EVSI method and entropy method) were compared. Finally, the developed diagnostic–decision support model was tested, so as to verify the most important parameter, affecting the possibility of structural vibrations to occur. The results of the study clearly showed that the use of Bayesian networks was a very effective approach to assess the impact of traffic-induced vibrations. The developed algorithm could be successfully applied both to existing and planned buildings, for which the source of vibration is already present or may appear in the future. Full article

The Franciscan Complex of California is characterized in part by the presence of mélanges. In general, mélange origins are attributed to sedimentary, tectonic, or diapiric processes—or a combination of these. Published reviews list the main features of mélanges characteristic of each type of origin. In this review, particular diagnostic features typical of sedimentary, tectonic, and diapiric mélanges are used to assess 15 specific mélanges, which in some cases have been interpreted in contrasting ways in the literature. The data do not support the view that most Franciscan mélanges were formed by sedimentary processes, but rather that both tectonic and sedimentary processes are important. There is little evidence that diapirism contributed significantly to Franciscan mélange genesis. Tectonic features present in most mélanges of subduction accretionary complexes create challenges in assessing mélange-forming processes. Notably, although tectonic overprints commonly mask the primary diagnostic fabric of sedimentary mélanges, some diagnostic features—such as depositional contacts, fossils in mélange matrix, and interlayering of mélange and non-mélange units—are critical to recognition of mélanges of sedimentary origin. Full article

The processes of isotope fractionation in the hydrological cycle naturally occur during vapor formation, vapor condensation, and moisture transportation. These processes are therefore dependent on local and regional surface and atmospheric physical features such as temperature, pressure, wind speed, and land morphology, and hence on the climate. Because of the strong influence of climate on the isotope fractionation, latitudinal and altitudinal effects on the δ¹⁸O and δ²H values of precipitation at a global scale are observed. In this study, we present and compare the processes governing precipitation isotope fractionation from two contrasting climatic regions: Virunga in Central-Eastern Africa and the Central Mediterranean (Stromboli and Sicily, Italy). While Virunga is a forested rainy tropical region located between Central and Eastern Africa, the Mediterranean region is characterized by a rainy mild winter and a dry hot summer. The reported δ¹⁸O and δ²H dataset are from precipitation collected on rain gauges sampled either on a monthly or an approximately bimonthly basis and published in previous papers. Both regions show clearly defined temporal and altitudinal variations of δ¹⁸O and δ²H, depending on precipitation amounts. The Central Mediterranean shows a clear contribution of local vapor forming at the sea–air interface, and Virunga shows a contribution from both local and regional vapor. The vapor of Virunga is from two competing sources: the first is the continental recycled moisture from soil/plant evaporation that dominates during the rainy season, and the second is from the East African Great Lakes evaporation that dominates during the dry season. Full article

Japan is exposed to several natural phenomena; the damages caused by earthquakes were enormous in particular. An emergency shelter is a place for people to temporarily live when they cannot remain in their previous homes, and it is necessary for each community to, respectively, allocate such facilities in Japan. There are the districts that are short of such facilities, especially in rural and suburban areas, because emergency shelters mainly concentrate near large-scale stations and city centres in Japan. Against these backdrops, using geographic information systems (GIS), an applied statistical method and public open data related to population and emergency shelters, the present research aims to quantitatively conduct a suitability analysis for the emergency shelters allocation after an earthquake in Japan. Based on the results, the present research grasps the districts that are short of emergency shelters, and visually shows the places where such facilities should be newly established on the digital map of GIS. Additionally, the assessment method is reproducible in the spatial and temporal dimension. It is necessary to create an original data related to emergency shelters to raise the reliability of the results, as the present research has the limitation of data availability. Full article

Geological heritage has become a tourist resource with huge potential in certain areas, which has given rise to a tourism category known as geotourism which has entered the generic framework of rural tourism. The main elements around which geotourism revolves are geoparks and geosites. However, despite the recognized role which is played by the latter as a tourist resource, there is a widespread lack of knowledge of the characteristics of the demand. This study aims to characterize the demand of the Villuercas–Jara–Ibores geopark in Spain based on information provided by surveys which has subsequently been processed by means of a Geographical Information System. The results obtained allow the differentiation of various types of profile of those providing the demand according to whether we consider visitors to the geopark as a whole or whether we separate tourists (visitors who spend the night in the geopark) from visitors (visitors who do not stay there). Among our main conclusions it should be emphasized that it is only possible to establish a difference between tourists and visitors if the main motivations are taken into account. It should also be stressed that the geopark operates as an internal tourist destination for those spending the night in other regions of Extremadura. Full article

This paper summarizes the content and scope of the “Catalogue of Earthquake Geological Effects in Spain”. The catalogue has been published by the Geological Survey of Spain (IGME) and constitutes the first official publication (in Spain) on seismic hazard containing geological information. The catalogue gathers the 51 stronger earthquakes that have occurred in Spain since the Neolithic period to the present and classifies earthquakes with geological or archaeological seismic records in paleoseismic, ancient, historical and instrumental earthquakes. The catalogue offers a variety of parametric information, quality indexes (Qe, Qi, Qg), and Environmental Seismic Intensity Scale (ESI-07) based description of environmental damage structured in individual “event files”. Sixteen of the 51 catalogued events present full information files (full event files), with individualized analyses of the geological and geoarchaeological data as well as graphic information with hybrid ESI-EMS intensity maps, ShakeMaps (seismic scenarios) and complementary kmz files (Google Earth) for each of the sixteen selected earthquakes; among which is the well-known AD 1755 Lisbon earthquake-tsunami. These selected earthquakes present individual environmental earthquake effects (EEE) or earthquake archaeoseismological effects (EAE) files for each catalogued effect containing specific site geo-information and graphic data (photos, graphs, maps, etc.). The second edition of the catalogue record 1027 EEEs and 187 EAEs, of which 322 effects have individual files. Full article

The city of Taranto in the south of Italy is one of the areas declared as “at high risk of environmental crisis” by the Italian government because it represents one of the most complex industrial sites in Europe, located near urban areas of high population density. The rich ecosystem of the Mar Piccolo basin, located at north of Taranto, started exhibiting unconfutable signs of environmental pollution, confirmed by the high concentrations of organic and inorganic contaminants. Among the different aspects involved in the environmental studies aiming at the basin remediation, this paper focuses on submarine sediments and reports some results of the geotechnical laboratory investigations which made also use of non-standard equipment and revised procedures for data interpretation in order to take account of the sediments’ contamination and heterogeneities. The geotechnical laboratory tests show that, despite the Mar Piccolo recent Holocene sediments having similar origin and composition to those of the Sub-Apennine clay basic formation, their behavioral facets appear to be altered by the presence of contaminants of both natural and anthropogenic origin. Results of washing tests are also presented as a first attempt to quantify the effects of chemo-mechanical coupling processes on the plasticity properties of the shallow sediments. Full article

A sequence of large earthquakes in central Italy ranging in moment magnitudes (Mw) from 4.2 to 6.5 caused significant damage to many small towns in the area. After each earthquake in 2016 (24 August and 26 October), automated small unmanned aerial vehicles (sUAV) acquired valuable imagery data for post-hazard reconnaissance in the mountain village of Pescara del Tronto, and were applied to 3D reconstruction using Structure-from-Motion (SfM). In July 2018, the site was again monitored to obtain additional imagery data capturing changes since the last visit following the 30 October 2016 Earthquake. A genetic-based mission-planning algorithm that delivers optimal viewpoints and path planning was field tested and reduced the required photos for 3D reconstruction by 9.1%. The optimized 3D model provides a better understanding of the current conditions of the village, when compared to the nadir models, by containing fewer holes on angled surfaces, including an additional 17% surface area, and with a comparable ground-sampling distance (GSD) of ≈2.4 cm/px (≈1.5 cm/px when adjusted for camera pixel density). The resulting three time-lapse models provide valuable metrics for ground motion, progression of damage, resilience of the village, and the recovery progress over a span of two years. Full article

Ecosystem services (ES) often rely on biogeochemical cycles, but values associated with abiotic services are often ignored or underestimated. Ecosystem services from atmospheric magnesium (Mg²⁺) deposition are abiotic flows (wet, dry, and total), which can be considered a source of naturally-occurring fertilizer and liming material, have not been included in economic valuations of ecosystem services. Market-based valuation of these atmospheric ecosystem service flows can partially address this negative externality. This study assessed the value of wet, dry, and total atmospheric magnesium deposition flows in the contiguous United States (USA) within boundary-based administrative accounts (e.g., state, region) based on data from the National Atmospheric Deposition Program (NRSP-3), and the market price of human-derived material (agricultural dolomite, CaMg(CO₃)₂). The total supporting ecosystem value of atmospheric magnesium deposition flows was $46.7M (i.e., 46.7 million U.S. dollars) ($18.5M wet + $28.2M dry) based on an average 2014 price of $12.90 per U.S. ton of agricultural dolomite (CaMg(CO₃)₂). The atmosphere is a common-pool resource that plays an important role in the pedosphere, providing important abiotic ES, but its monetary value is often not identified in the market due to a lack of information and/or knowledge of the proper valuation method. This study demonstrates one approach to translate atmospheric magnesium deposition flows entering the soil as an abiotic ES and potential monetary values at various scales. Omission of abiotic services in ES analysis can lead to an incomplete economic valuation. Full article