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Batteries
Volume 9
Issue 4
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Batteries, Volume 9, Issue 4 (April 2023) – 46 articles

Cover Story (view full-size image): With increasing commercial applications of vanadium flow batteries (VFB), containerised VFB systems are gaining attention as they can be mass produced and easily transported and configured for different energy storage applications. However, there are limited studies on the thermodynamic modelling of containerised vanadium redox flow battery systems and thermal control designs. In this paper, a dynamic thermal model is developed for containerised VFB systems, based on which thermal design options are evaluated using simulation studies. View this paper
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11 pages, 3359 KiB  
Article
Preparation and Characterization of a LiFePO4- Lithium Salt Composite Cathode for All-Solid-State Li-Metal Batteries
by Debabrata Mohanty, Pin-Hsuan Huang and I-Ming Hung
Batteries 2023, 9(4), 236; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries9040236 - 20 Apr 2023
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3008
Abstract
This study develops a composite cathode material suitable for solid-state Li-ion batteries (SSLIB). The composite cathode consists of LiFePO4 as the active material, Super P and KS-4 carbon materials as the conductive agents, and LiTFSI as the lithium salt. An LiFePO4 [...] Read more.
This study develops a composite cathode material suitable for solid-state Li-ion batteries (SSLIB). The composite cathode consists of LiFePO4 as the active material, Super P and KS-4 carbon materials as the conductive agents, and LiTFSI as the lithium salt. An LiFePO4/LATP-PVDF-HFP/Li all-solid-state LIB was assembled using Li1.3Al0.3Ti1.7(PO4)3 (LATP)/ poly(vinylidenefluoride-co-hexafluoropropylene (PVDF-HFP) as the solid-state electrolyte and lithium metal as the anode. The structure of the synthesized LATP was analyzed using X-ray diffraction, and the microstructure of the composite cathode and solid electrolyte layer was observed using a field emission scanning electron microscope. The electrochemical properties of the all-solid-state LIB were analyzed using electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) and a charge–discharge test. The effect of the composition ratio of the fabricated cathode on SSLIB performance is discussed. The results reveal that the SSLIB fabricated using the cathode containing LiFePO4, Super P, KS-4, PVDF, and LiTFSI at a weight ratio of 70:10:10:7:3 (wt.%) and a LATP/PVDF-HFP solid electrolyte layer containing PVDF-HFP, LiTFSI, and LATP at a weight ratio of 22:33:45 (wt.%) exhibited the optimal performance. Particularly, the SSLIB fabricated using the cathode containing 3% LiTFSI exhibited a discharge capacity of 168.9 mAhg−1 at 0.1 C, which is close to the theoretical capacity (170 mAhg−1), and had very good stability. The findings of this study suggests that the incorporation of an appropriate amount of LiTFSI can significantly enhance the electrochemical performance of SSLIB batteries. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Technologies and Electrode Materials for Metal Batteries)
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25 pages, 8200 KiB  
Review
A Review of Nb2CTx MXene: Synthesis, Properties and Applications
by Guozhen Guan and Fengmei Guo
Batteries 2023, 9(4), 235; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries9040235 - 19 Apr 2023
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 4770
Abstract
Nb2CTx is an important member of MXene family. It has attracted widespread attention because of its abundant functional groups, high hydrophilicity, high electrical conductivity as well as low ion transport barrier, showing great potential in various applications. In order to [...] Read more.
Nb2CTx is an important member of MXene family. It has attracted widespread attention because of its abundant functional groups, high hydrophilicity, high electrical conductivity as well as low ion transport barrier, showing great potential in various applications. In order to utilize the advantages of Nb2CTx MXene, the progress of preparation, properties and applications are reviewed in this work. This work focuses on different methods of Nb2CTx preparation and applications in electrochemical energy storage (supercapacitors and secondary batteries), electrocatalytic hydrogen evolution, photocatalytic hydrogen evolution, sensors, etc. Additionally, the main problems of self-stacking and prospect of Nb2CTx MXene are discussed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue High-Energy Battery and Supercapacitor)
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22 pages, 1377 KiB  
Article
Structural and Dynamic Characterization of Li–Ionic Liquid Electrolyte Solutions for Application in Li-Ion Batteries: A Molecular Dynamics Approach
by Michele A. Salvador, Rita Maji, Francesco Rossella, Elena Degoli, Alice Ruini and Rita Magri
Batteries 2023, 9(4), 234; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries9040234 - 19 Apr 2023
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2534
Abstract
Pyrrolidinium-based (Pyr) ionic liquids (ILs) have been proposed as electrolyte components in lithium-ion batteries (LiBs), mainly due to their higher electrochemical stability and wider electrochemical window. Since they are not naturally electroactive, in order to allow their use in LiBs, it is necessary [...] Read more.
Pyrrolidinium-based (Pyr) ionic liquids (ILs) have been proposed as electrolyte components in lithium-ion batteries (LiBs), mainly due to their higher electrochemical stability and wider electrochemical window. Since they are not naturally electroactive, in order to allow their use in LiBs, it is necessary to mix the ionic liquids with lithium salts (Li). Li–PF6, Li–BF4, and Li–TFSI are among the lithium salts more frequently used in LiBs, and each anion, namely PF6 (hexafluorophosphate), BF4 (tetrafluoroborate), and TFSI (bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)azanide), has its own solvation characteristics and interaction profile with the pyrrolidinium ions. The size of Pyr cations, the anion size and symmetry, and cation–anion combinations influence the Li-ion solvation properties. In this work, we used molecular dynamics calculations to achieve a comprehensive view of the role of each cation–anion combination and of different fractions of lithium in the solutions to assess their relative advantage for Li-ion battery applications, by comparing the solvation and structural properties of the systems. This is the most-comprehensive work so far to consider pyrrolidinium-based ILs with different anions and different amounts of Li: from it, we can systematically determine the role of each constituent and its concentration on the structural and dynamic properties of the electrolyte solutions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Battery Modelling, Simulation, Management and Application)
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14 pages, 3096 KiB  
Article
Towards Determining an Engineering Stress-Strain Curve and Damage of the Cylindrical Lithium-Ion Battery Using the Cylindrical Indentation Test
by George Z. Voyiadjis, Edris Akbari, Bartosz Łuczak and Wojciech Sumelka
Batteries 2023, 9(4), 233; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries9040233 - 18 Apr 2023
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2566
Abstract
Mechanical internal short circuit (ISC) is one of the significant safety issues in lithium-ion battery design. As a result, it is possible to subject LIB cells to thorough mechanical abuse tests to determine when and why failure may occur. The indentation test is [...] Read more.
Mechanical internal short circuit (ISC) is one of the significant safety issues in lithium-ion battery design. As a result, it is possible to subject LIB cells to thorough mechanical abuse tests to determine when and why failure may occur. The indentation test is a recommended loading condition for evaluating mechanical damage and ISC. In this study, 18,650 cylindrical battery cells underwent indentation tests and a voltage reduction following the peak force identified by the ISC. Due to the complexity of the contact surface shape between two cylinders (LIB cell and indenter), a new phenomenological analytical model is proposed to measure the projected contact area, which the FEM model confirms. Moreover, the stress-strain curve and Young’s modulus reduction were calculated from the load-depth data. In contrast to previously published models, the model developed in this paper assumes anisotropic hyperelasticity (the transversely isotropic case) and predicts the growing load-carrying capacity (scalar damage), whose variation is regulated by the Caputo-Almeida fractional derivative. Full article
(This article belongs to the Topic Advances in Energy Storage Materials/Devices and Solid-State Batteries)
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13 pages, 1218 KiB  
Article
How Cell Design Affects the Aging Behavior: Comparing Electrode-Individual Aging Processes of High-Energy and High-Power Lithium-Ion Batteries Using High Precision Coulometry
by Sebastian Michael Peter Jagfeld, Kai Peter Birke, Alexander Fill and Peter Keil
Batteries 2023, 9(4), 232; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries9040232 - 18 Apr 2023
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2534
Abstract
The aging behavior of lithium-ion batteries is crucial for the development of electric vehicles and many other battery-powered devices. The cells can be generally classified into two types: high-energy (HE) and high-power (HP) cells. The cell type used depends on the field of [...] Read more.
The aging behavior of lithium-ion batteries is crucial for the development of electric vehicles and many other battery-powered devices. The cells can be generally classified into two types: high-energy (HE) and high-power (HP) cells. The cell type used depends on the field of application. As these cells differ in their electrical behavior, this work investigates whether both cell types also show different aging behavior. More precisely, the occurring capacity loss and internal side reactions are analyzed via the charge throughput. For comparison, aging tests are carried out with a high-precision battery tester, allowing the application of High Precision Coulometry (HPC). This enables early detection of aging effects and also allows us to break down the capacity loss into electrode-individual processes. A total of two sub-studies are performed: (1) a cyclic study focusing on lithium plating; and (2) an accelerated calendar aging study. It is found that HE cells exhibit stronger cyclic aging effects (lithium plating) and HP cells exhibit stronger calendar aging effects. The higher lithium plating can be explained by the higher diffusion resistance of the lithium ions within the electrodes of HE Cell. The higher calendar aging fits to the larger electrode surfaces of the HP cell. These results give deep insights into the proceeding aging in a novel way and are interesting for the selection of the appropriate cell type in the context of battery development. In a next step, the measured capacity losses could also be used for a simple parameterization of battery aging models. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Precise Battery—towards Digital Twins for Advanced Batteries)
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13 pages, 1516 KiB  
Article
Material Flow Analysis of Lithium-Ion Battery Recycling in Europe: Environmental and Economic Implications
by Martina Bruno and Silvia Fiore
Batteries 2023, 9(4), 231; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries9040231 - 18 Apr 2023
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 6514
Abstract
This study aimed at a quantitative analysis of the material flows associated with End of Life (EoL) lithium-ion batteries’ (LIBs) materials in Europe. The European electric vehicles fleet in 2020 was taken as a case study, assuming a 10-year lifetime for the batteries [...] Read more.
This study aimed at a quantitative analysis of the material flows associated with End of Life (EoL) lithium-ion batteries’ (LIBs) materials in Europe. The European electric vehicles fleet in 2020 was taken as a case study, assuming a 10-year lifetime for the batteries and that the related EoL LIBs would be processed by existing recycling plants via pyrometallurgy, hydrometallurgy, or their combination in sequence. The economic implications (recycling operative costs compared to the revenues from the sales of the recycled metals) and the environmental performances (CO2 eq. emitted, energy demand and circularity performances) were assessed. Based on the gathered results, the existing European recycling capacity will overlook over 78% of the forecasted EoL LIBs. The treatment efficiencies of the full-scale recycling processes allow for the recovery of over 90% of copper, cobalt, nickel, and manganese, 87% of aluminum, and only 42% of lithium and 35% of iron entering the recycling facilities. In overall, LIBs recycling in 2030 will involve the emission of 3.7 Mt of CO2 eq. and an energy demand of 33.6 GWh. Hydrometallurgy presents the best economic and environmental trade-off compared to other recycling strategies. In conclusion, this study demonstrated that current European LIBs’ recycling infrastructure will be inadequate in the near future and the direction (i.e., hydrometallurgy) that its strengthening should pursue. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Green and Sustainable Materials for Li-Ion Batteries)
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16 pages, 8439 KiB  
Article
Apparent Aging during Accelerated Cycling Aging Test of Cylindrical Silicon Containing Li-Ion Cells
by Pablo Morales Torricos, Christian Endisch and Meinert Lewerenz
Batteries 2023, 9(4), 230; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries9040230 - 18 Apr 2023
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3531
Abstract
Accelerated cyclic aging tests are very important for research and industry to quickly characterize lithium-ion cells. However, the accentuation of stress factors and the elimination of rest periods lead to an apparent capacity fade, that can be subsequently recovered during a resting phase. [...] Read more.
Accelerated cyclic aging tests are very important for research and industry to quickly characterize lithium-ion cells. However, the accentuation of stress factors and the elimination of rest periods lead to an apparent capacity fade, that can be subsequently recovered during a resting phase. This effect is attributed to the inhomogeneous lithium distribution in the anode and is observable with differential voltage analysis (DVA). We tested cylindrical 18,650 cells with Li(NixCoyAlz)O2-graphite/silicon chemistry during two cycling and resting phases. The capacity, the pulse resistance, the DVA, and the capacity difference analysis are evaluated for cells cycled at different average SOC and current rates. An apparent capacity loss of up to 12% was reported after 200 FCE for cells cycled under the presence of pressure gradients, while only 1% were at low-pressure gradients. The subsequent recovery was up to 80% of the apparent capacity loss in some cases. The impact of silicon cannot be estimated as it shows no features in the dV/dQ curves. We observe a recovery of apparent resistance increase, which is not reported for cells with pure graphite anodes. Finally, we demonstrate the strong impact of apparent aging for the lifetime prediction based on standard accelerated cyclic aging tests. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lithium-Ion Batteries Aging Mechanisms, 2nd Edition)
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22 pages, 11018 KiB  
Article
Manganese, Fluorine, and Nitrogen Co-Doped Bronze Titanium Dioxide Nanotubes with Improved Lithium-Ion Storage Properties
by Denis P. Opra, Sergey L. Sinebryukhov, Evgeny B. Modin, Alexander A. Sokolov, Anatoly B. Podgorbunsky, Albert M. Ziatdinov, Alexander Y. Ustinov, Vitaly Y. Mayorov and Sergey V. Gnedenkov
Batteries 2023, 9(4), 229; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries9040229 - 17 Apr 2023
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2303
Abstract
Because of the unique crystal framework, bronze TiO2 (or TiO2(B)) is considered the prospective choice for high-performance lithium-ion battery anodes. Nevertheless, TiO2(B) requires efficient modification, e.g., suitable doping with other elements, to improve the electronic properties and enhance [...] Read more.
Because of the unique crystal framework, bronze TiO2 (or TiO2(B)) is considered the prospective choice for high-performance lithium-ion battery anodes. Nevertheless, TiO2(B) requires efficient modification, e.g., suitable doping with other elements, to improve the electronic properties and enhance the stability upon insertion/extraction of guest ions. However, due to the metastability of TiO2(B), doping is challenging. Herein, for the first time, TiO2(B) co-doped with Mn, F, and N were synthesized through a successive method based on a hydrothermal technique. The prepared doped TiO2(B) consists of ultrathin nanotubes (outer diameter of 10 nm, wall thickness of 2–3 nm) and exhibits a highly porous structure (pore volume of up to 1 cm3 g−1) with a large specific surface area near 200 m2 g−1. The incorporation of Mn, F, and N into TiO2(B) expands its crystal lattice and modifies its electronic structure. The band gap of TiO2(B) narrows from 3.14 to 2.18 eV upon Mn- and N-doping and electronic conductivity improves more than 40 times. Doping with fluorine improves the thermal stability of TiO2(B) and prevents its temperature-induced transformation into anatase. It was found that the diffusivity of Li is about two times faster in doped TiO2(B). These properties make Mn, F, and N co-doped TiO2(B) nanotubes promising for application as high-performance anodes in advanced lithium-ion batteries. In particular, it possesses a good reversible capacity (231.5 mAh g−1 after 100 cycles at 70 mA g−1) and prominent rate capability (134 mAh g−1 at 1500 mA g−1) in the half-cell configuration. The (Mn, F, N)-doped TiO2(B) possesses a remarkable low-temperature Li storage performance, keeping 70% of capacity at −20 °C and demonstrating potentialities to be employed in full-cell configuration with LiMn2O4 cathode delivering a reversible capacity of 123 and 79 mAh g−1 at 35 and 1500 mA g−1, respectively, at a voltage of ~2.5 V. This research underlies that regulation of electronic and crystal structure is desired to uncover capabilities of nanoparticulate TiO2(B) for electrochemical energy storage and conversion. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Battery Materials and Interfaces: Anode, Cathode, Separators and Electrolytes or Others)
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12 pages, 877 KiB  
Review
Machine-Learning Approaches for the Discovery of Electrolyte Materials for Solid-State Lithium Batteries
by Shengyi Hu and Chun Huang
Batteries 2023, 9(4), 228; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries9040228 - 17 Apr 2023
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 4553
Abstract
Solid-state lithium batteries have attracted considerable research attention for their potential advantages over conventional liquid electrolyte lithium batteries. The discovery of lithium solid-state electrolytes (SSEs) is still undergoing to solve the remaining challenges, and machine learning (ML) approaches could potentially accelerate the process [...] Read more.
Solid-state lithium batteries have attracted considerable research attention for their potential advantages over conventional liquid electrolyte lithium batteries. The discovery of lithium solid-state electrolytes (SSEs) is still undergoing to solve the remaining challenges, and machine learning (ML) approaches could potentially accelerate the process significantly. This review introduces common ML techniques employed in materials discovery and an overview of ML applications in lithium SSE discovery, with perspectives on the key issues and future outlooks. Full article
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11 pages, 8290 KiB  
Article
Descriptor-Based Graded Electrode Microstructures Design Strategies of Lithium-Ion Batteries for Enhanced Rate Performance
by Qiang Shan, Yuwen Liu and Shengli Chen
Batteries 2023, 9(4), 227; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries9040227 - 14 Apr 2023
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2533
Abstract
Microstructure engineering of electrodes is one of the efficient routes to improve rate performance of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs). Currently, there is a lack of descriptors to rationally guide the regional electrode design. Here, we propose two descriptors, the time differential of the average [...] Read more.
Microstructure engineering of electrodes is one of the efficient routes to improve rate performance of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs). Currently, there is a lack of descriptors to rationally guide the regional electrode design. Here, we propose two descriptors, the time differential of the average state of lithium (SoL) and the span of SoL in individual particles, to identify the rate performance constraints across the electrode depth. 3D microstructure-based electrochemical simulations are performed on a homogeneous electrode, and the predictability of the microstructure-based model is verified with the experimental measurement on a LiNi1/3Mn1/3Co1/3O2 electrode. At electrode level, the descriptors divide the electrode into four regions, namely, a solid-state transport (SST)-controlled region, two mixed SST and liquid-state transport (LST)-controlled regions (SST-dominant and LST-dominant, respectively), and an LST-controlled region. Based on these insights, dual-gradient electrodes are designed with smaller particles in the SST-controlled region and graded porosity increasing from current collector to the separator. Results show that the optimized dual-gradient electrode has significantly more excellent LST capability compared to the homogeneous electrode, thus improving the utilization of particles near the collector. As a result, the capacity performance of the optimized dual-gradient electrode increases by 39% at 5C without sacrificing the gravimetric energy density. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Materials Design for Electrochemical Energy Storage)
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18 pages, 4920 KiB  
Review
Impact of Surface Structure on SEI for Carbon Materials in Alkali Ion Batteries: A Review
by Xvtong Zhao, Ying Chen, Hao Sun, Tao Yuan, Yinyan Gong, Xinjuan Liu and Taiqiang Chen
Batteries 2023, 9(4), 226; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries9040226 - 14 Apr 2023
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3637
Abstract
Due to their low cost, suitable working potential and high stability, carbon materials have become an irreplaceable anode material for alkali ion batteries, such as lithium ion batteries, sodium ion batteries and potassium ion batteries. During the initial charge, electrolyte is reduced to [...] Read more.
Due to their low cost, suitable working potential and high stability, carbon materials have become an irreplaceable anode material for alkali ion batteries, such as lithium ion batteries, sodium ion batteries and potassium ion batteries. During the initial charge, electrolyte is reduced to form a solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) on the carbon anode surface, which is an electron insulator but a good ion conductor. Thus, a stable surface passivation is obtained, preventing the decomposition of electrolyte in the following cycles. It has been widely accepted that SEI is essential for the long-term performance of batteries, such as calendar life and cycle life. Additionally, the initial coulombic efficiency, rate capability as well as safety of the batteries are dramatically influenced by the SEI. Extensive research efforts have been made to develop advanced SEI on carbon materials via optimization of electrolytes, including solutes, solvents and additives, etc. However, SEI is produced via the catalytic decomposition of electrolyte by the surface of electrode materials. The surface structure of the carbon material is another important aspect that determines the structure and property of SEI, which little attention has been paid to in previous years. Hence, this review is dedicated to summarizing the impact of the surface structure of carbon materials on the composition, structure and electrochemical performance of the SEI in terms of surface atoms exposed, surface functionalization, specific surface area and pore structure. Some insights into the future development of SEI from the perspective of carbon surface are also offered. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Review of Electrode Materials and Electrolyte for Batteries)
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14 pages, 1006 KiB  
Article
Battery Sharing: A Feasibility Analysis through Simulation
by Mattia Neroni, Erika M. Herrera, Angel A. Juan, Javier Panadero and Majsa Ammouriova
Batteries 2023, 9(4), 225; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries9040225 - 11 Apr 2023
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1872
Abstract
Nowadays, several alternatives to internal combustion engines are being proposed in order to reduce CO2 emissions in freight transportation and citizen mobility. According to many experts, the use of electric vehicles constitutes one of the most promising alternatives for achieving the desirable [...] Read more.
Nowadays, several alternatives to internal combustion engines are being proposed in order to reduce CO2 emissions in freight transportation and citizen mobility. According to many experts, the use of electric vehicles constitutes one of the most promising alternatives for achieving the desirable reductions in emissions. However, popularization of these vehicles is being slowed by long recharging times and the low availability of recharging stations. One possible solution to this issue is to employ the concept of battery sharing or battery swapping. This concept is supported by important industrial partners, such as Eni in Italy, Ample in the US, and Shell in the UK. This paper supports the introduction of battery swapping practices by analyzing their effects. A discrete-event simulation model is employed for this study. The obtained results show that battery sharing practices are not just a more environmentally and socially friendly solution, but also one that can be highly beneficial for reducing traffic congestion. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Battery Management in Electric Vehicles: Current Status and Future Trends)
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21 pages, 6259 KiB  
Article
A Multi-Stage Adaptive Method for Remaining Useful Life Prediction of Lithium-Ion Batteries Based on Swarm Intelligence Optimization
by Qihao Bao, Wenhu Qin and Zhonghua Yun
Batteries 2023, 9(4), 224; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries9040224 - 10 Apr 2023
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2077
Abstract
The accuracy of predicting the remaining useful life of lithium batteries directly affects the safe and reliable use of the supplied equipment. Since the degradation of lithium batteries can easily be influenced by different operating conditions and the regeneration and fluctuation of battery [...] Read more.
The accuracy of predicting the remaining useful life of lithium batteries directly affects the safe and reliable use of the supplied equipment. Since the degradation of lithium batteries can easily be influenced by different operating conditions and the regeneration and fluctuation of battery capacity during the use of lithium batteries, it is difficult to construct an accurate prediction model of lithium batteries. Therefore, research into high-precision methods of predicting the remaining useful life has been a popular topic for the whole-life management system of lithium batteries. In this paper, a new hybrid optimization method for predicting the remaining useful life of lithium batteries is proposed. The proposed method incorporates two different swarm intelligence optimization algorithms. Firstly, the whale optimization algorithm is used to optimize the variational mode decomposition (WOAVMD), which can decompose the historical life data into several trend components and non-trend components. Then, the sparrow search algorithm is applied to optimize the long short-term memory neural network (SSALSTM) to predict the non-trend component and the autoregressive integrated moving average model (ARIMA) is used to predict trend components. Finally, the prediction results of each component are integrated to evaluate the remaining useful life of lithium batteries. Results show that better prediction accuracy is obtained in the prediction experiments for several types of batteries in both the NASA and CALCE battery datasets. The generalization ability of the algorithm has also been effectively improved owing to the optimization of parameters of the variational mode decomposition (VMD) and the long short-term memory neural network (LSTM). Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Battery Performance, Ageing, Reliability and Safety)
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34 pages, 7105 KiB  
Review
Advances in Strategic Inhibition of Polysulfide Shuttle in Room-Temperature Sodium-Sulfur Batteries via Electrode and Interface Engineering
by Anupriya K. Haridas and Chun Huang
Batteries 2023, 9(4), 223; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries9040223 - 9 Apr 2023
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3616
Abstract
Room-temperature sodium-sulfur batteries (RT-NaSBs) with high theoretical energy density and low cost are ideal candidates for next-generation stationary and large-scale energy storage. However, the dissolution of sodium polysulfide (NaPS) intermediates and their migration to the anode side give rise to the shuttle phenomenon [...] Read more.
Room-temperature sodium-sulfur batteries (RT-NaSBs) with high theoretical energy density and low cost are ideal candidates for next-generation stationary and large-scale energy storage. However, the dissolution of sodium polysulfide (NaPS) intermediates and their migration to the anode side give rise to the shuttle phenomenon that impedes the reaction kinetics leading to rapid capacity decay, poor coulombic efficiency, and severe loss of active material. Inhibiting the generation of long-chain NaPS or facilitating their adsorption via physical and chemical polysulfide trapping mechanisms is vital to enhancing the electrochemical performance of RT-NaSBs. This review provides a brief account of the polysulfide inhibition strategies employed in RT-NaSBs via physical and chemical adsorption processes via the electrode and interfacial engineering. Specifically, the sulfur immobilization and polysulfide trapping achieved by electrode engineering strategies and the interfacial engineering of the separator, functional interlayer, and electrolytes are discussed in detail in light of recent advances in RT-NaSBs. Additionally, the benefits of engineering the highly reactive Na anode interface in improving the stability of RT-NaSBs are also elucidated. Lastly, the future perspectives on designing high-performance RT-NaSBs for practical applications are briefly outlined. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Battery Processing, Manufacturing and Recycling)
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14 pages, 13179 KiB  
Article
Grain Boundary Characterization and Potential Percolation of the Solid Electrolyte LLZO
by Shuo Fu, Yulia Arinicheva, Claas Hüter, Martin Finsterbusch and Robert Spatschek
Batteries 2023, 9(4), 222; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries9040222 - 8 Apr 2023
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2637
Abstract
The influence of different processing routes and grain size distributions on the character of the grain boundaries in Li7La3Zr2O12 (LLZO) and the potential influence on failure through formation of percolating lithium metal networks in the solid [...] Read more.
The influence of different processing routes and grain size distributions on the character of the grain boundaries in Li7La3Zr2O12 (LLZO) and the potential influence on failure through formation of percolating lithium metal networks in the solid electrolyte are investigated. Therefore, high quality hot-pressed Li7La3Zr2O12 pellets are synthesised with two different grain size distributions. Based on the electron backscatter diffraction measurements, the grain boundary network including the grain boundary distribution and its connectivity via triple junctions are analysed concerning potential Li plating along certain susceptible grain boundary clusters in the hot-pressed LLZO pellets. Additionally, the study investigates the possibility to interpret short-circuiting caused by Li metal plating or penetration in all-solid-state batteries through percolation mechanisms in the solid electrolyte microstructure, in analogy to grain boundary failure processes in metallic systems. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Solid State Batteries: From Materials Research to Design and Applications)
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19 pages, 1352 KiB  
Review
An Overview of the Design and Optimized Operation of Vanadium Redox Flow Batteries for Durations in the Range of 4–24 Hours
by Vilayanur V. Viswanathan, Alasdair J. Crawford, Edwin C. Thomsen, Nimat Shamim, Guosheng Li, Qian Huang and David M. Reed
Batteries 2023, 9(4), 221; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries9040221 - 6 Apr 2023
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 9246
Abstract
An extensive review of modeling approaches used to simulate vanadium redox flow battery (VRFB) performance is conducted in this study. Material development is reviewed, and opportunities for additional development identified. Various crossover mechanisms for the vanadium species are reviewed, and their effects on [...] Read more.
An extensive review of modeling approaches used to simulate vanadium redox flow battery (VRFB) performance is conducted in this study. Material development is reviewed, and opportunities for additional development identified. Various crossover mechanisms for the vanadium species are reviewed, and their effects on its state of charge and its state of health assessed. A stack design focusing on flow fields and an electrode design tailored to various flow fields are reviewed. An operational strategy that takes these parameters into account is reviewed for various operating envelopes, chosen based on end user preference in terms of minimizing capital cost or operation and maintenance cost. This work provides a framework for the design and operation of a VRFB for various grid services. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Efficient Redox Flow Batteries for Smart Grids and Renewable Energy Storage)
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21 pages, 13466 KiB  
Article
Numerical Study on Cross-Linked Cold Plate Design for Thermal Management of High-Power Lithium-Ion Battery
by Huizhu Yang, Zehui Wang, Mingxuan Li, Fengsheng Ren and Binjian Ma
Batteries 2023, 9(4), 220; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries9040220 - 5 Apr 2023
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3955
Abstract
Liquid cooling strategies such as cold plates have been widely employed as an effective approach for battery thermal management systems (BTMS) due to their high cooling capacity and low power consumption. The structural design of the cold plates is the key factor that [...] Read more.
Liquid cooling strategies such as cold plates have been widely employed as an effective approach for battery thermal management systems (BTMS) due to their high cooling capacity and low power consumption. The structural design of the cold plates is the key factor that directly determines the thermal performance of the liquid cooling system. In this study, seven Z-type parallel channel cold plate and two novel cross-linked channel cold plate designs are proposed for the cooling of high-power lithium-ion batteries using two different cooling strategies. The average battery temperature, battery temperature uniformity and energy consumption of all designs are firstly analyzed holistically by three-dimensional conjugated simulation under the scheme of continuous cooling. Two selected designs that demonstrated superior performance (i.e., a Z-type parallel channel cold plate with 8-branches and an improved cross-linked channel design) are further analyzed to explore their integrative performance under different cooling schemes. The results show that within a battery temperature limit of 40 °C, employing the delayed cooling strategy can save 23% energy consumption compared to the continuous cooling strategy. Besides, the cold plate with an improved cross-linked channel configuration requires 13% less pumping power and provides a better temperature uniformity than the Z-type parallel channel cold plate with 8-branches. These results are of great significance to advance the cooling design of BTMS. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Thermal Management System for Lithium-Ion Batteries)
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16 pages, 1629 KiB  
Article
Deep Reinforcement Learning-Based Method for Joint Optimization of Mobile Energy Storage Systems and Power Grid with High Renewable Energy Sources
by Yongkang Ding, Xinjiang Chen and Jianxiao Wang
Batteries 2023, 9(4), 219; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries9040219 - 5 Apr 2023
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2452
Abstract
The joint optimization of power systems, mobile energy storage systems (MESSs), and renewable energy involves complex constraints and numerous decision variables, and it is difficult to achieve optimization quickly through the use of commercial solvers, such as Gurobi and Cplex. To address this [...] Read more.
The joint optimization of power systems, mobile energy storage systems (MESSs), and renewable energy involves complex constraints and numerous decision variables, and it is difficult to achieve optimization quickly through the use of commercial solvers, such as Gurobi and Cplex. To address this challenge, we present an effective joint optimization approach for MESSs and power grids that consider various renewable energy sources, including wind power (WP), photovoltaic (PV) power, and hydropower. The integration of MESSs could alleviate congestion, minimize renewable energy waste, fulfill unexpected energy demands, and lower the operational costs for power networks. To model the entire system, a mixed-integer programming (MIP) model was proposed that considered both the MESSs and the power grid, with the goal of minimizing costs. Furthermore, this research proposed a highly efficient deep reinforcement learning (DRL)-based method to optimize route selection and charging/discharging operations. The efficacy of the proposed method was demonstrated through many numerical simulations. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Machine Learning for Advanced Battery Systems)
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18 pages, 4124 KiB  
Article
Experimental Investigation on Reversible Swelling Mechanisms of Lithium-Ion Batteries under a Varying Preload Force
by Emanuele Michelini, Patrick Höschele, Simon Franz Heindl, Simon Erker and Christian Ellersdorfer
Batteries 2023, 9(4), 218; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries9040218 - 4 Apr 2023
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 6184
Abstract
The safety of lithium-ion batteries has to be guaranteed over the complete lifetime considering geometry changes caused by reversible and irreversible swellings and degradation mechanisms. An understanding of the pressure distribution and gradients is necessary to optimize battery modules and avoid local degradation [...] Read more.
The safety of lithium-ion batteries has to be guaranteed over the complete lifetime considering geometry changes caused by reversible and irreversible swellings and degradation mechanisms. An understanding of the pressure distribution and gradients is necessary to optimize battery modules and avoid local degradation bearing the risk of safety-relevant battery changes. In this study, the pressure distribution of two fresh lithium-ion pouch cells was measured with an initial preload force of 300 or 4000 N. Four identical cells were electrochemically aged with a 300 or 4000 N preload force. The irreversible thickness change was measured during aging. After aging, the reversible swelling behavior was investigated to draw conclusions on how the pressure distribution affected the aging behavior. A novel test setup was developed to measure the local cell thickness without contact and with high precision. The results suggested that the applied preload force affected the pressure distribution and pressure gradients on the cell surface. The pressure gradients were found to affect the locality of the irreversible swelling. Positions suffering from large pressure variations and gradients increased strongly in thickness and were affected in terms of their reversible swelling behavior. In particular, the edges of the investigated cells showed a strong thickness increase caused by pressure peaks. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Battery Safety: Recent Advances and Perspective)
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25 pages, 13333 KiB  
Article
Degradation-Conscious Multiobjective Optimal Control of Reconfigurable Li-Ion Battery Energy Storage Systems
by Dulmini Karunathilake, Mahinda Vilathgamuwa, Yateendra Mishra, Paul Corry, Troy Farrell and San Shing Choi
Batteries 2023, 9(4), 217; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries9040217 - 4 Apr 2023
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2442
Abstract
Lithium-ion battery energy storage systems are made from sets of battery packs that are connected in series and parallel combinations depending on the application’s needs for power. To achieve optimal control, advanced battery management systems (ABMSs) with health-conscious optimal control are required for [...] Read more.
Lithium-ion battery energy storage systems are made from sets of battery packs that are connected in series and parallel combinations depending on the application’s needs for power. To achieve optimal control, advanced battery management systems (ABMSs) with health-conscious optimal control are required for highly dynamic applications where safe operation, extended battery life, and maximum performance are critical requirements. The majority of earlier research assumed that the battery cells in these energy storage systems were identical and would vary uniformly over time in terms of cell characteristics. However, in real-world situations, the battery cells might behave differently for a number of reasons. Overcharging and over-discharging are caused by an electrical imbalance that results from the cells’ differences in properties and capacity. Therefore in this study, a stratified real-time control scheme was developed for the dual purposes of minimizing the capacity fade and the energy losses of a battery pack. Each of the cells in the pack is represented by a degradation-conscious physics-based reduced-order equivalent circuit model. In view of the inconsistencies between cells, the proposed control scheme uses a state estimator such that the parametric values of the circuit elements in the cell model are determined and updated in a decentralized manner. The minimization of the capacity fade and energy losses is then formulated as a multiobjective optimization problem, from which the resulting optimal control strategy is realized through the switching actions of a modular multilevel series-parallel converter which interconnects the battery pack to an external AC system. A centralized controller ensures optimal switching sequence of the converter leading to the maximum utilization of the capacity of the battery pack. Both simulation and experimental results are used to verify the proposed methodologies which aim at minimizing the battery degradation by reconfiguring the battery cells dynamically in accordance with the state of health (SOH) of the pack. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Lithium-Ion Battery Management in Renewable Energy Systems)
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12 pages, 3633 KiB  
Article
Identification and Error Analysis of Lithium-Ion Battery Oriented to Cloud Data Application Scenario
by Fang Zhang, Tao Sun, Bowen Xu, Yuejiu Zheng, Xin Lai and Long Zhou
Batteries 2023, 9(4), 216; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries9040216 - 3 Apr 2023
Viewed by 1838
Abstract
The label-less characteristics of real vehicle data make engineering modeling and capacity identification of lithium-ion batteries face great challenges. Different from ideal laboratory data, the raw data collected from vehicle driving cycles have a great adverse impact on effective modeling and capacity identification [...] Read more.
The label-less characteristics of real vehicle data make engineering modeling and capacity identification of lithium-ion batteries face great challenges. Different from ideal laboratory data, the raw data collected from vehicle driving cycles have a great adverse impact on effective modeling and capacity identification of lithium-ion batteries due to the randomness and unpredictability of vehicle driving conditions, sampling frequency, sampling resolution, data loss, and other factors. Therefore, data cleaning and optimization is processed and the capacity of a battery pack is identified subsequently in combination with the improved two-point method. The current available capacity is obtained by a Fuzzy Kalman filter optimization capacity estimation curve, making use of the charging and discharging data segments. This algorithm is integrated into a new energy big data cloud platform. The results show that the identification algorithm of capacity is applied successfully from academic to engineering fields by charge and discharge mutual verification, and that life expectancy meets the engineering requirements. Full article
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13 pages, 3559 KiB  
Review
Modeling and Simulation of Non-Aqueous Redox Flow Batteries: A Mini-Review
by Haotian Zhou, Ruiping Zhang, Qiang Ma, Zhuo Li, Huaneng Su, Ping Lu, Weiwei Yang and Qian Xu
Batteries 2023, 9(4), 215; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries9040215 - 2 Apr 2023
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2966
Abstract
Redox flow batteries (RFBs) have been widely recognized in the domain of large-scale energy storage due to their simple structure, long lifetime, quick response, decoupling of capacity and power, and structural simplicity. Because of the limited open circuit voltage (OCV) by hydrogen and [...] Read more.
Redox flow batteries (RFBs) have been widely recognized in the domain of large-scale energy storage due to their simple structure, long lifetime, quick response, decoupling of capacity and power, and structural simplicity. Because of the limited open circuit voltage (OCV) by hydrogen and oxygen evolution reactions, together with the relatively low solubility of active species, RFBs with aqueous electrolytes are challenging to reach high energy densities. Researchers have been trying to develop new solvent systems without water to remove the electrochemical window limitation of water and pursue higher cell potential. However, non-aqueous solvents are also hindered by some key problems, such as high viscosity and poor safety. Meeting these challenges require a comprehensive understanding of relevant structural design parameters and multi-variable operation in the non-aqueous flow battery (NAFB) system. Modeling and simulation are not only an effective way to understand the basic mechanism of flow batteries at different scales of size and time but also an ideal tool for optimizing the reaction process, battery assembly, and the whole flow battery installation. This review paper introduces the development of the non-aqueous flow battery, the challenges it faces, and the research progress of related modeling and simulation for verification or optimization. Finally, the future development prospects of the non-aqueous flow battery model are pointed out, especially for those systems and fields that have not yet been explored. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Promising Redox Flow Batteries)
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15 pages, 6423 KiB  
Article
Switched Discharge Device for Enhanced Energy Extraction from Li-Ion 18650
by Vasile Surducan and Olivia-Ramona Bruj
Batteries 2023, 9(4), 214; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries9040214 - 1 Apr 2023
Viewed by 2215
Abstract
All autonomous electrically powered devices require a continuous power supply from batteries. Increasing the discharge performance is the top priority in the Lithium-Ion (Li-Ion) battery field and pulsed discharge is proving numerous advantages. In this paper, the maximum efficiency of pulsed discharge method [...] Read more.
All autonomous electrically powered devices require a continuous power supply from batteries. Increasing the discharge performance is the top priority in the Lithium-Ion (Li-Ion) battery field and pulsed discharge is proving numerous advantages. In this paper, the maximum efficiency of pulsed discharge method on a constant load while the cells are alternately switched with dead-time is thoroughly studied. Therefore, a novel Li-Ion charge/discharge and measurement device (SWD) using fast switching MOSFET was designed and fabricated. The device can alternately switch up to 8.3 kHz two Li-Ion 18650 batteries, generating continuous power to the programmable load and monitor the parameters that impact the capacity of the battery. An EIS (Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy) analysis is employed to evaluate the impedance and the behavior of the cells at frequencies up to 10 kHz. Experimental results reveal that a maximum discharge time is determined when two cells are switched at a frequency of 5.8 kHz. As a consequence, the total capacity of two switched batteries in a single discharge cycle is increased by 16.6%. Pulsed discharge efficiency is visible starting from 70% State of Charge (SOC) and is correlated with the rest time, reduced heat loss and inductance, respectively. Full article
(This article belongs to the Collection Advances in Battery Energy Storage and Applications)
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21 pages, 2675 KiB  
Article
Fractional-Order Sliding-Mode Observers for the Estimation of State-of-Charge and State-of-Health of Lithium Batteries
by Minghao Zhou, Kemeng Wei, Xiaogang Wu, Ling Weng, Hongyu Su, Dong Wang, Yuanke Zhang and Jialin Li
Batteries 2023, 9(4), 213; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries9040213 - 1 Apr 2023
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 1779
Abstract
Lithium batteries are widely used in power storage and new energy vehicles due to their high energy density and long cycle life. The accurate and real-time estimation for the state-of-charge (SoC) and the state-of-health (SoH) of lithium batteries is of great significance to [...] Read more.
Lithium batteries are widely used in power storage and new energy vehicles due to their high energy density and long cycle life. The accurate and real-time estimation for the state-of-charge (SoC) and the state-of-health (SoH) of lithium batteries is of great significance to improve battery life, reliability, and utilization efficiency. In this paper, three cascaded fractional-order sliding-mode observers (FOSMOs) are designed for the estimation of SoC by observing the terminal voltage, the polarization voltage, and the open-circuit voltage of a lithium cell, respectively. Furthermore, to calculate the value of the SoH, two FOSMOs are developed to estimate the capacity and internal resistance of the lithium cell. The control signals of the observers are continuous by utilizing fractional-order sliding manifolds without low-pass filters. Compared with the existing sliding-mode observers for SoC and SoH, weaker chattering, faster response, and higher estimation accuracy are obtained in the proposed method. Finally, the experiment tests demonstrate the validity and feasibility of the proposed observer design method. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Battery Energy Storage in Advanced Power Systems)
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13 pages, 4174 KiB  
Article
Fast Ion Transfer Associated with Dehydration and Modulation of Hydration Structure in Electric Double-Layer Capacitors Using Molecular Dynamics Simulations and Experiments
by Shunsuke Hasumi, Sogo Iwakami, Yuto Sasaki, Sharifa Faraezi, Md Sharif Khan and Tomonori Ohba
Batteries 2023, 9(4), 212; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries9040212 - 1 Apr 2023
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2007
Abstract
Carbon materials, such as graphite and activated carbon, have been widely used as electrodes in batteries and electric double-layer capacitors (EDLCs). Graphene, which has an extremely thin sheet-like structure, is considered as a fundamental carbon material. However, it was less investigated as an [...] Read more.
Carbon materials, such as graphite and activated carbon, have been widely used as electrodes in batteries and electric double-layer capacitors (EDLCs). Graphene, which has an extremely thin sheet-like structure, is considered as a fundamental carbon material. However, it was less investigated as an electrode material than graphite and activated carbons. This is because graphene is a relatively new material and is difficult to handle. However, using graphene electrodes can enhance the performance of nanodevices. Here, the performance of EDLCs based on single-layer and bilayer graphene electrodes in LiCl, NaCl, and KCl aqueous electrolyte solutions was evaluated using cyclic voltammetry, and the charging mechanism was evaluated using molecular dynamics simulations. KCl aqueous solution provided the highest capacitance compared to LiCl and NaCl aqueous solutions in the case of single-layer graphene electrodes. In contrast, the dependence of the capacitance on the ion species was hardly observed in the case of bilayer graphene. This indicates that Li and Na ions also contributed to the capacitances. The high EDLC performance can be attributed to the fast ion transfer promoted by the dehydration and modification of the second hydration shell on the bilayer graphene because of the relatively strong interaction of ions with the bilayer graphene. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Anode and Electrolyte Materials for Lithium-Ion Batteries and Beyond)
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29 pages, 4729 KiB  
Review
Hybrid Energy Storage Systems Based on Redox-Flow Batteries: Recent Developments, Challenges, and Future Perspectives
by Christina Schubert, Wiem Fekih Hassen, Barbara Poisl, Stephanie Seitz, Jonathan Schubert, Estanis Oyarbide Usabiaga, Pilar Molina Gaudo and Karl-Heinz Pettinger
Batteries 2023, 9(4), 211; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries9040211 - 31 Mar 2023
Cited by 18 | Viewed by 7568
Abstract
Recently, the appeal of Hybrid Energy Storage Systems (HESSs) has been growing in multiple application fields, such as charging stations, grid services, and microgrids. HESSs consist of an integration of two or more single Energy Storage Systems (ESSs) to combine the benefits of [...] Read more.
Recently, the appeal of Hybrid Energy Storage Systems (HESSs) has been growing in multiple application fields, such as charging stations, grid services, and microgrids. HESSs consist of an integration of two or more single Energy Storage Systems (ESSs) to combine the benefits of each ESS and improve the overall system performance, e.g., efficiency and lifespan. Most recent studies on HESS mainly focus on power management and coupling between the different ESSs without a particular interest in a specific type of ESS. Over the last decades, Redox-Flow Batteries (RFBs) have received significant attention due to their attractive features, especially for stationary storage applications, and hybridization can improve certain characteristics with respect to short-term duration and peak power availability. Presented in this paper is a comprehensive overview of the main concepts of HESSs based on RFBs. Starting with a brief description and a specification of the Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) of common electrochemical storage technologies suitable for hybridization with RFBs, HESS are classified based on battery-oriented and application-oriented KPIs. Furthermore, an optimal coupling architecture of HESS comprising the combination of an RFB and a Supercapacitor (SC) is proposed and evaluated via numerical simulation. Finally, an in-depth study of Energy Management Systems (EMS) is conducted. The general structure of an EMS as well as possible application scenarios are provided to identify commonly used control and optimization parameters. Therefore, the differentiation in system-oriented and application-oriented parameters is applied to literature data. Afterwards, state-of-the-art EMS optimization techniques are discussed. As an optimal EMS is characterized by the prediction of the system’s future behavior and the use of the suitable control technique, a detailed analysis of the previous implemented EMS prediction algorithms and control techniques is carried out. The study summarizes the key aspects and challenges of the electrical hybridization of RFBs and thus gives future perspectives on newly needed optimization and control algorithms for management systems. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Efficient Redox Flow Batteries for Smart Grids and Renewable Energy Storage)
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16 pages, 1649 KiB  
Article
Evaluation of Glyoxal-Based Electrolytes for Lithium-Sulfur Batteries
by Sebastian Kirchhoff, Christian Leibing, Paul Härtel, Thomas Abendroth, Susanne Dörfler, Holger Althues, Stefan Kaskel and Andrea Balducci
Batteries 2023, 9(4), 210; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries9040210 - 31 Mar 2023
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2437
Abstract
Lithium-sulfur batteries (LSBs) are among the most promising next generation battery technologies. First prototype cells show higher specific energies than conventional Li-ion batteries (LIBs) and the active material is cost-effective and ubiquitously abundant. However, Li-S batteries still suffer from several limitations, mainly the [...] Read more.
Lithium-sulfur batteries (LSBs) are among the most promising next generation battery technologies. First prototype cells show higher specific energies than conventional Li-ion batteries (LIBs) and the active material is cost-effective and ubiquitously abundant. However, Li-S batteries still suffer from several limitations, mainly the cycle life, inflation of cells, and also the lack of a component production value chain. As this battery system is based on a complex conversion mechanism, the electrolyte plays a key role, not only for specific energy, but also for rate capability, cycle stability and costs. Herein, we report on electrolytes based on glyoxylic-acetal based solvents, Tetraethoxyglyoxal (TEG) and Tetramethoxyglyoxal (TMG). These solvents have been examined before for supercapacitors and LIBs, but never for LSBs, although they exhibit some beneficial properties, and the production value chain has already been well established as they are precursors for several chemicals. A specially adapted electrolyte composition is established by adjusting solvent ratio and LiTFSI concentration in a TXG:DOL solvent blend. The obtained electrolytes show long cycle life as well as high coulombic efficiencies without the use of LiNO3, a component leading normally to cell inflation and safety issues. In addition, a successful evaluation in a multilayer Li-S-pouch cell was performed. The electrolytes were thoroughly characterized, and their sulfur conversion mechanism is discussed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lithium-Sulfur Batteries: Research Progress of Key Materials)
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12 pages, 3326 KiB  
Article
Chemo-Mechanical Coupling Measurement of LiMn2O4 Composite Electrode during Electrochemical Cycling
by Huijie Yu, Jiangtao Li, Hainan Jiang, Wei Li, Guorui Li and Dawei Li
Batteries 2023, 9(4), 209; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries9040209 - 30 Mar 2023
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1816
Abstract
Real-time monitoring of the mechanical behavior of cathode materials during the electrochemical cycle can help obtain an in-depth understanding of the working mechanism of lithium-ion batteries. The LiMn2O4 composite electrode is employed as the working electrode in this artificial cell, [...] Read more.
Real-time monitoring of the mechanical behavior of cathode materials during the electrochemical cycle can help obtain an in-depth understanding of the working mechanism of lithium-ion batteries. The LiMn2O4 composite electrode is employed as the working electrode in this artificial cell, which is conceived and produced along with a chemo-mechanical coupling measurement system. The multi-layer beam composite electrode made of LiMn2O4 is monitored in real time using a CCD camera to track its curvature deformation. Experiments show that the curvature of the LiMn2O4 electrode decreases with the extraction of lithium ions and increases during the lithiation process. In the meantime, a theoretical framework was developed to examine the connection between curvature change and mechanical characteristics. Thus, the elastic modulus, strain, and stress of the LiMn2O4 composite electrode were extracted by combining the bending deformation and theoretical model. The results show that the elastic modulus of the LiMn2O4 composite electrode decreases from 59.61 MPa to 12.01 MPa with the extraction of lithium ions during the third cycle. Meanwhile, the stress decreases from 0.46 MPa to 0.001 MPa, and the strain reduces from 0.43 to 0. Its changes reverse during the lithiation process. Those findings could have made a further understanding of the mechanical properties in lithium-ion batteries. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lithium-Ion Batteries and Beyond: Outlook on Present and Future)
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19 pages, 16726 KiB  
Article
A High-Performance Vortex Adjustment Design for an Air-Cooling Battery Thermal Management System in Electric Vehicles
by Gang Zhao, Xiaolin Wang, Michael Negnevitsky, Chengjiang Li, Hengyun Zhang and Yingyao Cheng
Batteries 2023, 9(4), 208; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries9040208 - 30 Mar 2023
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2852
Abstract
To boost the performance of the air-cooling battery thermal management system, this study designed a novel vortex adjustment structure for the conventional air-cooling battery pack used in electric vehicles. T-shape vortex generating columns were proposed to be added between the battery cells in [...] Read more.
To boost the performance of the air-cooling battery thermal management system, this study designed a novel vortex adjustment structure for the conventional air-cooling battery pack used in electric vehicles. T-shape vortex generating columns were proposed to be added between the battery cells in the battery pack. This structure could effectively change the aerodynamic patterns and thermodynamic properties of the battery pack, including turbulent eddy frequency, turbulent kinetic energy, and average Reynolds number, etc. The modified aerodynamic patterns and thermodynamic properties increased the heat transfer coefficient with little increase in energy consumption and almost no additional cost. Different designs were also evaluated and optimized under different working conditions. The results showed that the cooling performance of the Design 1 improved at both low and high air flow rates. At a small flow rate of 11.88 L/s, the Tmax and ΔT of Design 1 are 0.85 K and 0.49 K lower than the conventional design with an increase in pressure drop of 0.78 Pa. At a relative high flow rate of 47.52 L/s, the Tmax and ΔT of the Design 1 are also 0.46 K and 0.13 K lower than the conventional design with a slight increase in pressure drop of 17.88 Pa. These results demonstrated that the proposed vortex generating design can improve the cooling performance of the battery pack, which provides a guideline for the design and optimization of the high-performance air-cooling battery thermal management systems in electric vehicles. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Battery Modelling, Simulation, Management and Application)
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14 pages, 1728 KiB  
Article
Material and Waste Flow Analysis for Environmental and Economic Impact Assessment of Inorganic Acid Leaching Routes for Spent Lithium Batteries’ Cathode Scraps
by Yi-Chin Tang, Jian-Zhi Wang, Chih-Ming Chou and Yun-Hwei Shen
Batteries 2023, 9(4), 207; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries9040207 - 30 Mar 2023
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2746
Abstract
With the development trend and technological progress of lithium batteries, the battery market is booming. This means that the demand for lithium batteries has increased significantly, resulting in a large number of discarded lithium batteries. The consumption of plenty of lithium batteries may [...] Read more.
With the development trend and technological progress of lithium batteries, the battery market is booming. This means that the demand for lithium batteries has increased significantly, resulting in a large number of discarded lithium batteries. The consumption of plenty of lithium batteries may lead to the scarcity and expending of relevant raw material metal resources, as well as serious heavy metal environmental pollution. Therefore, it is of great significance to recycle valuable metal resources from discarded lithium batteries. The proper recycling of these valuable metals can reduce the shortage of mineral resources and environmental hazards caused by a large number of scrapped vehicle batteries. Recently, different systematic approaches have been developed for spent lithium battery recovery. However, most of these approaches do not account for the hidden costs incurred from various processing steps. This work is determined by the concept of material flow cost accounting (MFCA). Hence, in this research, a MFCA-based approach is developed for the leaching process of spent lithium batteries recovery, taking into consideration the hidden costs embedded in process streams. In this study, hydrochloric acid had the worst leaching efficiency due to its high solid-to-liquid ratio and the lowest acid concentration, so it was excluded in the first stage selection. It takes TWD 16.03 and TWD 24.10 to leach 10 g of lithium battery powder with sulfuric acid and nitric acid, respectively. The final sulfuric acid was the acid solution with the highest leaching efficiency and relatively low cost among inorganic acids. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recycling of Lithium-Ion Batteries: Current Status and Future Outlook)
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