Heritage, Volume 5, Issue 2 (June 2022) – 36 articles

The Fellini Museum is an exhibition hall dedicated to the Rimini film director Federico Fellini, included by the Ministry of Culture of Italy among the great national cultural projects. It was inaugurated on 19 August 2021, and it is the first worldwide exhibition hall dedicated to the famous film director. The museum, intended as a widespread museum center, is divided into three separate places in the historic center of Rimini: Sismondo Castle (built at the behest of Sigismondo Malatesta, at that time Lord of Rimini and Fano, starting from 1437 AD), Fulgor Palace and Malatesta square. The goal of the present paper is double. In the first part, as a case study, the innovative integrated system and installations planned for the optimal functioning and management of the Fellini Museum of Rimini in Italy is illustrated, showing its related complexity, due to its extension and articulation through different environments and due to the respect for architectural/historical heritage. In the second part, as dedicated and linked research, a proper Genetic Algorithms-based method, studied and applied for the optimization of the design of the wired network of the integrated system, the electrical power network and the air conditioning network is illustrated. It guarantees a decrease of realization costs, considering also the typical vincula and restrictions of already existing historical buildings, such as the considered one. Full article

3D modeling techniques have grown increasingly prevalent in a variety of disciplines, including cultural heritage and ship design. The methodology used in the 3D reconstruction of a traditional Greek boat with the Trechadiri hull type named “Aghia Varvara” is presented in this study. The original boat was built in 1925 and is characterized as a modern cultural heritage monument by the Greek Ministry of Culture. The digital reconstruction of the boat is explained in detail, including 3D laser scanning and computer aided geometric design (CAGD), as well as the description of the 3D printing process. The boat’s 3D digital model has been used for the enrichment of the NAVS Project’s digital library, demonstrating the unique geometrical, typological, and cultural characteristics of Greek traditional shipbuilding, a living craft which listed on Greece’s National Inventory of Intangible Cultural Heritage. Full article

Fleury Richard was a colorist painter of the early 19th century. He practiced the oil technique inspired by the Renaissance at a time when advances in chemistry were introducing many new synthetic pigments. His color-mixing cabinet has been kept intact at the Musée des Beaux Arts de Lyon. This original study is based on the analysis of more than 40 color powders using different spectroscopic techniques (X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and Raman spectroscopy), color index estimation, and the comparison of the results obtained from three pictural works painted by the artist. It allows us (i) to identify and reference the pigmented powders and pictural choices in connection with historical manuscripts describing the artist’s practice, and (ii) to identify the most judicious analysis methods and question the difficulty of analyzing paintings in a non-destructive way, where pigments are put into a matrix and mixed. Full article

This study was carried out within the project “Roma Hispana. Nuevas tecnologías aplicadas al estudio histórico, la musealización y la puesta en valor de Patrimonio Cultural español en Roma: la spezieria di Santa Maria della Scala” (Universitat de València Spain), which is funded by the Conselleria d’Innovació, Universitats, Ciència i Societat Digital of the Generalitat Valenciana (2020–2021) and authorized by the Sovrintendenza Speciale Archeologia Belle Arti e Paesaggio (Special Superintendence of Archeology, Fine Arts and Landscape) of Rome, Italy. The spezieria di Santa Maria della Scala was the oldest apothecary in Europe managed by the order of Discalced Carmelite friars. Operating between the second half of the seventeenth century and the mid-twentieth century, over time it acquired great prestige, becoming known as the Pharmacy of the Popes. The aims of the “Roma Hispana” project are to study, musealize and disseminate the material and immaterial cultural heritage of this historical spezieria by combining physicochemical and cultural studies, new 3D technologies, and artificial intelligence. As a case study, in this paper we report the application of a laser scanner prototype for 3D color imaging of the spezieria’s sales room and use a simpler photogrammetry method to collect analogous data in the small nearby storeroom coupled to the high-power capabilities of the ENEA parallel computer facility. Digital data were collected to enable a virtual tour that provides a fully navigable, faithful, high-resolution 3D color model to render this ancient Roman apothecary accessible and usable to interested members of the public and experts in the sector (art historians, restorers, etc.). We also describe the 3D technology used to obtain three-dimensional images of the cultural assets of these spaces (mostly drug containers) and its results. The ultimate aim of this study is to achieve the virtual musealization of the heritage complex. Full article

Saqqara, the necropolis of the first capital city of a unified Egypt, is best known today for the Step Pyramid of Pharaoh Djoser (2667–2648 B.C.). However, the Step Pyramid is only the most visible feature of this great burial site, and the tombs of many thousands of individuals are hidden beneath the sands, some excavated, others not. These human burials are only a part of Saqqara’s funerary history. This paper examines the catacombs of the numerous animals revered by the Egyptians at Saqqara and whose burial places have come to be known collectively as ‘The Sacred Animal Necropolis’ (SAN). First amongst these, both in importance and inception, was the Apis bull, the living image (ba) of Ptah, creator god of Memphis. However, it was the work conducted by Professor W.B. Emery (1903–1971) which brought to light the burial place of the Mother of the Apis as well as those for ibises, falcons, and baboons and which has provided much of what we know of the Sacred Animal Necropolis at North Saqqara. More recent work has built upon the discoveries made by Emery and others and taken a new approach to these subterranean catacombs for sacred animals. Full article

The current study is the first comprehensive investigation of the polychromy of Palmyrene funerary portraits. It presents the technical examinations of six portraits (ca. 150–250 CE) from the collection of the Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek, illustrating the marvellous splendour of the cultural heritage of ancient Palmyra. The six portraits were examined with various analytical methods, including microscopy, ultraviolet-induced visible fluorescence imaging and visible light-induced infrared luminescence imaging, X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy coupled to energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. Finally, two samples were collected for liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry to obtain the amino acid sequence information. Various pigments were detected in the polychromy including lapis lazuli, pyromorphite, mimetite, yellow ochre, red ochre, a red lake, lead carbonate, zinc oxide, bone black, and charcoal black. The proteinaceous binding medium was identified as collagen-based and possibly also keratin-based animal glue. The examinations of the Palmyrene portraits in the Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek have proven that these artefacts, despite their current uniform, white appearance, originally presented themselves in a wealth of colours. This is illustrated by the digital reconstructions carried out of two of the examined portraits, which show how the original painting of these portraits would have given them an entirely different expression from what we see today. Full article

This paper examines the dilemmas, obligations and opportunities faced by heritage professionals in elaborating cultural ‘assets’ among the breadwinning practices of contemporary, artisanal communities. It takes as its case study the authors’ Bahari Yetu, Urithi Wetu (‘Our Ocean, Our Heritage’) project and its engagement with maritime practitioners in and around the town of Bagamoyo, Tanzania. The article identifies Bagamoyo’s contemporary maritime scene as meriting heritage recognition on a global level, yet sitting entirely outside the country’s legal and political conception of heritage. Moreover, it acknowledges that ‘heritage’ as founded on the livelihood-earning activities of the community’s practitioners, such as boatbuilders, fishers and mariners. These often operate at subsistence level, yet are subject to transformative economic, social and environmental forces, as well as government agencies with no heritage remit. Drawing upon and reporting their co-creative engagements and activities with the Bagamoyo community, the authors argue for a non-reifying and people-centred approach to ‘living’ heritage situations such as that of maritime Bagamoyo, in which the tools of heritage engagement are deployed to amplify the concerns of the practitioner community to a wider audience. Full article

The article presents two aspects of a project of high-resolution mapping of archaeological features in the southern region of Israel, which was conducted intermittently between 2003 and 2016. One aspect is archaeological, with emphasis on the dense features underlying the area on the periphery of ancient settlements; the second aspect is the objective of integrating the data in multidisciplinary environmental studies. The main conclusion derived from the mapping project is that the existing data in the databases and publications, despite their richness, will not suffice and that there is a need to return to the field and supplement the features in accordance with the aims of the study. Sorting the collected features is a no less complex challenge, as is the relationship with the settlements in question. This challenge calls for expertise gained from cumulative experience gained in fieldwork, for the simple reason that the features date from different periods, and the potential correlation of certain features with a specific settlement is the test. This kind of upgrading with regard to the archaeological aspect in multidisciplinary environmental studies is critical because, in our view, the archaeological data lag behind the technological development of accompanying research, including research that has employed remote sensing as well as a variety of laboratory tests. It has been found that quite a few of these advanced studies use terms such as “site”, which in many cases is no more than a point indicating the general location of feature distribution. The same applies to the use of dating as a preferred goal before investing the necessary effort in sorting the features. If this effort is not invested first, there is no way of conclusively determining what is being dated and how dating a specific object contributes to understanding the settlement distribution in a region. Full article

This study applied multiple scientific approaches to establish the significance of an old work of art, Red Guitar, by examining its historical origin and the color materials used in its creation. Additionally, the study provides thus far unknown pieces of Olga Picasso’s family history to be added to her biography. Scientific approaches included digital X-ray radiography, X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy, infrared Fourier transform spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy, and elemental thermal conductivity analysis. This combination of techniques provided a broad confirmation as to when the painting was created. The artwork includes colors (white, black, blue, yellow, green, red, and brown/red) and prevalent use of lead- and iron-based historic pigments—chrome yellow, yellow ochre, and red ochre. It also documents the use of unconventional materials, such as the colorant Pigment Red 4, and nitrocellulose. This investigation led to the conclusion that the artwork, Red Guitar, is authentic and in accordance with Picasso’s work during the first two decades of the 20th century. Full article

Four nearly identical versions of an ancient printed book, the Song of Enlightenment with Commentaries by Buddhist Monk Nammyeong Cheon (南明泉和尙頌證道歌), were examined by image analysis and comparisons to identify whether they are the identical versions or different versions in terms of printing techniques. Two out of four versions have been designated as Korean treasures and the other two versions are currently being examined for designation as Korean cultural properties. One of two Korean treasures has been spotlighted as a potential movable metal type printing book prior to the Jikji printed in 1377, as recognized by the UNESCO Memory of the World program. Heated debates over the printing techniques and printing dates have overwhelmed Korean historians for more than 50 years. Due to the subjective nature of the evaluation, it was hard to reach a unanimous decision. Finding objective new evidence is needed to end this heated debate. We found very clear evidence showing that one version is significantly different from the others and was likely printed using movable metal type in September 1239. It is the oldest extant book printed using metal type, 138 years prior to the printing date of Jikji. Full article

The intensifying effects of climate change are becoming one of the main threats to cultural heritage, posing risks of degradation or destruction. Climate change is bringing complexity and uncertainty to ensuring the resilience of cultural heritage, and among risk mitigation measures digitalisation is regarded as a promising tool. However, the infrastructure required for the digitalisation process exerts significant pressures on the environment contributing to climate deterioration. To address these issues, this contribution developed a strong sustainability framework for the preservation of cultural heritage through digitalisation, for minimising environmental impacts and maximising the potential of preservation. To construct the framework, a literature review was conducted on efficiency and sufficiency concepts and existing approaches to sustainability of digitalisation in cultural heritage. To test the potential application and feasibility of the framework in driving environmental sustainability efforts within cultural heritage organisations, the case study of the Finnish Heritage Agency was analysed. The results showed that the understanding of the sustainability of digitalisation is not fully developed. Strong sustainability is hardly applied in practice, even though an inherent tendency for sufficiency especially in the appraisal stage was identified. It was highlighted that extensive stakeholder networks are required for advancing the sustainability of digital preservation. Ultimately, re-examining current practices and realigning stakeholders would be required for addressing the current challenges. Full article

The article examines the collaborations between the pensionnaires of the Villa Medici in Rome and the members of the French School of Athens, shedding light on the complex relationships between architecture, art, and archeology. The second half of the 19th century was a period during which the exchanges and collaborations between archaeologists, artists, and architects acquired a reinvented role and a dominant place. Within such a context, Athens was the place par excellence, where the encounter between these three disciplines took place. The main objective of the article is to render explicit how the revelations of archeology, actively disseminated by the members of the French School of Athens—the “Athéniens”—had an important impact on the approach of certain pensionnaires of the Villa Medici in Rome. Particular emphasis is placed on certain pensionnaires, who decided to devote their envois to ancient monuments of Greece. In parallel, the article intends to shed light on the methods that helped the pensionnaires-architects of the Villa Medici in Rome appropriate archaeological discoveries concerning Greek antiquities. The article takes, as a starting point, the following hypothesis: to better understand the figure of the architect-archaeologist, of whom Jacques Ignace Hittorff is an emblematic example, it is pivotal to bear in mind that before the second half of the 19th century neither the figure of Hellenic archeology nor the figure of the architect had yet acquired their autonomy. Taking into account that Johann Joachim Winckelmann, in the middle of the 18th century, forged an ideal Greek model, which was criticized during the second half of the 19th century, the article also sheds light on the fact that the revelations of archaeologists have called into question the Winckelmannian image of Greece. Another aspect that is explored in the article is Jacques Ignace Hittorff’s studies concerning the polychromy of ancient Greek monuments, paying special attention to his Restitution du temple d’Empédocle à Sélinonte ou l’Architecture polychrome chez les Grecs. The article also explores how the shifts of the status of philhellenism are related to the mutations of the meaning of travel to Greece. In parallel, it investigates the impact of Greek independence on the ideals of beauty and nature in arts, as well as how Greek independence is related to the intensification of the interest in the excavations of Greek antiquities. Full article

Spatial Augmented Reality (SAR), as implemented with projection mapping, is part of mixed-reality technology with numerous applications in the cultural domain. In museums, interactive projection mapping has been exploited to superimpose virtual content on exhibited artefacts, offering users various hybrid ways to interact with the artefacts’ physical and digital content. For this reason, it has been widely used in the context of architectural heritage to promote culture and raise awareness about historical buildings or landscapes by visualizing significant elements they convey. This paper presents the design, development, and iterative user evaluation of an interactive projection mapping installation for the Mastic Museum on Chios island in Greece that promotes UNESCO’s intangible cultural heritage. The installation affords tangible interaction to activate the video projections presented in a storytelling manner on a 3D-printed scale model of a representative historic settlement exhibited inside the museum. The concept of this installation aims to connect the tangible and intangible cultural heritage of mastic and the related villages with narration and vivid illustrations. Three evaluation phases took place during the development at the lab and the museum, informing UX, learning, and design considerations. Full article

The lack of studies reporting the characterisation of Germanic grisaille is evident, despite the recent interest of researchers in this glass painting material. This work consists of the first assessment of Germanic grisaille’ chemical composition on a wide chronology (14th–19th centuries), that was only possible through the unique stained-glass collection of King Ferdinand II of Portugal. From the considerable amount of panels produced in Germanic territory and assembled by Ferdinand, twenty-two panels were characterised, and some trends of glass support typical composition and grisaille recipes were verified through this case study. A copper-based grisaille appears to have been the preference up to the 18th century. The 19th century shows higher diversity in composition, with new compounds (such as Co, Cr, Mn) appearing as colourising materials. However, with a limited number of analyses, and dispersed throughout time and different geographic locations, the results of this study are unprecedented, by being able to present the first overview on grisaille composition in Germanic stained glasses. Full article

On the occasion of the 700th centenary of the death of Dante Alighieri, medium wave infrared imaging analysis of illuminations of the XIV-century code of the Divina Commedia (MS. 1102), hosted in the Biblioteca Angelica in Rome, was performed and discussed. The investigation was carried out by means of thermographic and reflectographic techniques on illuminations where the iconographic representation appeared severely damaged. In particular, through the combined use of both techniques, it was possible to recover the images of the damaged parts of the pictorial layer of the illuminations and of their underdrawings, displaying details of the “lost guardians”, which was useful to reconstruct the conservative history of the precious manuscript. Full article

Large archaeological, organic materials can be difficult to preserve, conserve, and store in their entirety, which is why prioritisation is often necessary. Priority is generally given to recognisable objects rather than smaller fragments. Nevertheless, for archaeological leather, exactly such insignificant fragments can provide new information on the diversity of species exploited. In this pilot study, we use a Citizen Science approach for the first time to identify archaeological leather fragments using the protein-based method Zooarchaeology by Mass Spectrometry (ZooMS). By inviting the public to participate in archaeological research, the project’s first 52 samples, including both recognisable and unidentifiable objects, were analysed. We show that the participants not only generated good data, but also contributed to current knowledge by identifying two hitherto undescribed animal species for leather in medieval and Renaissance Copenhagen. The finding of deer suggests that Copenhagen citizens now and then had access to game through the nobility and the finding of horse suggests that the unclean status of horses was sometimes overlooked to exploit its hide. Our findings are promising for more identifications and the new knowledge the project will generate. The study calls into question how we prioritise and assign value to cultural heritage materials. Full article

Caves can be considered as features of the landscape that have been formatted through a long period and are signs of the past climatological conditions, of prehistoric animal and human inhabitation, and provide habitat for species. In the near past, caves have also gained tourism interest since they offer unique sightseeing experiences. The sustainability and protection of cave heritage have been recently discussed mainly because over-tourism has been proven to have negative side effects on the preservation of the heritage site. Technology today has provided widely adopted inexpensive technical means to support immersive visiting experiences to sites of heritage interest that could support their valorization and sustainability in forms more friendly to the site. In this work, such an alternative visiting approach is explored through a use case applied to the Alistrati cave near Serres, Greece, where a VR tour guide can support immersive visiting experiences to the heritage site. By employing means of digital preservation of heritage sites the VR solution aspires to offer immersive close to reality engaging visiting experiences. Full article

From luxury spice to medical cure-all, silphium was a product coveted throughout the ancient world and occupied an essential place in the export economy of ancient Cyrene. The mysterious extinction of the silphium plant in the 1st century CE leaves us with little evidence as to the exact nature of this important agricultural product. In this paper, an historical background on the kingdom of Cyrene is provided, evidence for the nature of the silphium plant is reviewed, how and why it was consumed and traded is discussed. Possible causes of extinction are considered in the context of plant genetics, biometrics, and soil geochemistry. Next, we demonstrate how modern medical studies conducted on possible living relatives can inform us about claims made by ancient authors as to the medical uses of the silphium plant, including its use as a contraceptive and abortifacient. Finally, methods for recovering silphium are explored. We show how underwater archaeology and the search for ancient shipwrecks off the northern coast of Libya may offer our best chance for the recovery of botanical remains of ancient silphium, and how ancient DNA may be able to establish the genetic makeup of this elusive plant. Full article

The comprehensive technical investigation of female nude paintings by the Singapore pioneer artist Liu Kang (1911–2004) provided the evidence for a discussion of the evolution of his palette of colours and his working process for expression in this genre, particularly the execution of female bodies. As the artist’s free expression in classical nude paintings was limited by the censorship imposed by the Singapore government, the investigated artworks span two periods, 1927–1954 (early career) and 1992–1999 (the “golden years”, during which censorship policies were relaxed). Hence, eight paintings from the Liu family and National Gallery Singapore were selected for non- and micro-invasive analyses of the paint layers. The obtained results were supplemented with archival sources to elucidate certain aspects of Liu Kang’s working practice. The investigation revealed the importance of drawing and sketching studies in the development of artistic ideas. The analytical techniques, such as polarised light microscopy (PLM), field emission scanning electron microscope with energy dispersive spectroscopy (FE-SEM-EDS) and attenuated total reflectance–Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR), enabled us to observe a transition from the yellow iron-based tonal ranges of skin colours to complex pigment mixtures composed of additions of cobalt blue, ultramarine, Prussian blue, Cr-containing yellow(s) and green(s), cadmium yellow, orange and/or red and organic reds, revealing the artist’s more liberal use of colours and his experimentation with their contrasting and complementary juxtaposes. In terms of painting technique, the artist’s comparatively laborious paint application using small brushes quickly gave way to a more effortless manipulation of the paint using bigger brushes and the incorporation of palette knives. Moreover, visible light (VIS), near-infrared (NIR) and X-ray radiography (XRR) imaging techniques led to the discovery of a hidden composition in one investigated artwork, which bears resemblance to the nude painting known only from an archival photograph. Additionally, for the first time, the archival search provided photographic evidence that Liu Kang used oil paint tubes from Royal Talens and Rowney in the 1990s. Overall, this in-depth investigation contributes to the understanding of Liu Kang’s approach to the female nude painting and may assist conservators and art historians in studies of twentieth-century commercial paints. Full article

Skeletal evidence dating back to the Mesolithic period is scarce and should be studied under a multidisciplinary perspective. The primary objective of the study was to carefully assess the skeleton of a young woman from this era, named “Avgi,” to compile its bioarchaeological profile, analyze its paleopathology and dental pathology, and deploy a 3D reconstruction and modeling method in order to reveal her face. Both demographic and pathological information were drawn from macroscopically observing the bones, long bone X-rays, skull CT and X-rays, 3D modeling and printing of the skull, and panoramic dental X-rays. The Manchester method was used for the 3D facial reconstruction. On analysis, we determined that Avgi was a female adolescent, aged around 17–19 years at death, and likely suffering from iron deficiency anemia and Class III dental malocclusion. Notably, Harris lines and a hair-on-end pattern were identified in the long bones and skull radiographs, respectively. Various less significant skeletal lesions reflected potential minor pathologies. Our findings suggest that multidisciplinary collaborative approaches should be followed in the modern study of lesser-known past eras. Multiple scientific perspectives, as well as social structures, geographical aspects, settlements, population movements, and social networks should all be taken into account when assessing lifestyle characteristics and paleopathological signs in skeletal remains. Full article

Field investigations in the northwestern segment of the Greater Caucasus, a Late Cenozoic orogen, have permitted the establishment of two new geosites, namely the Ubin and Bezeps geosites. Both represent Berriasian–Middle Valanginian (Early Cretaceous) marine deposits with abundant trace fossils. The latter are attributed to the Nereites ichnofacies and indicate on deep marine palaeoenvironments (this interpretation challenges previous reconstructions). The geosites represent the palaeogeographical type of geoheritage. They are characterized, particularly, by high scientific and aesthetic importance, but restricted accessibility. Further geoheritage inventory in the central Northwestern Caucasus seems to be promising. Full article

On a sample of the Turin Shroud (TS), we applied a new method for dating ancient linen threads by inspecting their structural degradation by means of Wide-Angle X-ray Scattering (WAXS). The X-ray dating method was applied to a sample of the TS consisting of a thread taken in proximity of the 1988/radiocarbon area (corner of the TS corresponding to the feet area of the frontal image, near the so-called Raes sample). The size of the linen sample was about 0.5 mm × 1 mm. We obtained one-dimensional integrated WAXS data profiles for the TS sample, which were fully compatible with the analogous measurements obtained on a linen sample whose dating, according to historical records, is 55–74 AD, Siege of Masada (Israel). The degree of natural aging of the cellulose that constitutes the linen of the investigated sample, obtained by X-ray analysis, showed that the TS fabric is much older than the seven centuries proposed by the 1988 radiocarbon dating. The experimental results are compatible with the hypothesis that the TS is a 2000-year-old relic, as supposed by Christian tradition, under the condition that it was kept at suitable levels of average secular temperature—20.0–22.5 °C—and correlated relative humidity—75–55%—for 13 centuries of unknown history, in addition to the seven centuries of known history in Europe. To make the present result compatible with that of the 1988 radiocarbon test, the TS should have been conserved during its hypothetical seven centuries of life at a secular room temperature very close to the maximum values registered on the earth. Full article

This paper is concerned with a morphological-stylistic and archaeometric study of two small pottery statues, confiscated by the Cosenza Carabinieri Unit for the Protection of Cultural Heritage and Anti-Counterfeiting (Calabria, Italy). The research aimed to establish the authenticity of the artworks and to verify a possible origin from the same workshop manufacturing, by providing indications about the textural features and raw materials used for their production. For these purposes, the analytical approach involved the use of minero-petrographic and physical analysis, as follows: petrographic analysis (OM), X-ray diffraction (XRD) and thermoluminescence tests (TL). The preliminary observation, which highlights differences in the stylistic features of the two statuettes as well as in the color, morphology and distribution of the white-greyish patina, is further confirmed by the TL investigations. The TL test revealed an ancient production only for one of the analyzed finds and the investigations on the raw materials allowed to relate this to a possible local historical-artistic context. The second statuette, on the other hand, is attributable to a modern production as confirmed by TL measurement. Full article

Few instances of material evidence for ancient colour restorations have been documented over the last 20 years, during which time the scientific approach to the study of polychromy has been defined. This article presents eight new cases of ancient restoration of colour from the Roman Imperial Age. By combining observations in visible and UV light and video microscopy with a micro-stratigraphic approach, MA-X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy, and contextual archaeological data, we have observed evidence which could suggest an aesthetic change in the use of colour between the 2nd and 4th centuries CE: from polychrome and multitone effects to the use of monochromatic, flat, and uniform colour finishes. Full article

Along most of the European littoral, oysters were appreciated as a wholesome and palatable food from the Stone Age onwards, yet were transported much further from their natural habitats when long-distance trade in marine foodstuffs began in medieval times. The brackish waters of the Baltic Sea are not considered a suitable environment for this mollusc, and therefore all archaeological oyster shell finds are the result of import to the eastern Baltic. In this study, over 1000 shells found in different medieval and early modern archaeological contexts in Estonia were analysed, and the obtained data recorded in a data repository. Some conclusions are set out, based on shell size and shape, and breakage traces, but more detailed taphonomic studies are left for the future. This study identifies the earliest imports of oysters recorded by archaeological material and written sources. Both show records not much earlier than the 16th century AD. Although no information is preserved about the exact origin of oysters imported to Estonia, the oyster beds most probably exploited are those in the central eastern North Sea, i.e., the Wadden Sea. Full article

The purpose of this work is to present the archaeological and historical background of viticulture and winemaking from ancient times to the present day in the Mediterranean basin. According to recent archaeological, archaeochemical and archaeobotanical data, winemaking emerged during the Neolithic period (c. 7th–6th millennium BC) in the South Caucasus, situated between the basins of the Black and Caspian Seas, and subsequently reached the Iberian Peninsula and Western Europe during the local beginning of Iron Age (c. 8th century BC), following the main maritime civilizations. This review summarises the most relevant findings evidencing that the expansion of wine production, besides depending on adequate pedo-climatic conditions and wine-growing practices, also required the availability of pottery vessels to properly ferment, store and transport wine without deterioration. The domestication of wild grapevines enabled the selection of more productive varieties, further sustaining the development of wine trade. Other fermented beverages such as mead and beer gradually lost their relevance and soon wine became the most valorised. Together with grapes, it became an object and a system of value for religious rituals and social celebrations throughout successive ancient Western civilizations. Moreover, wine was used for medicinal purposes and linked to a wide variety of health benefits. In everyday life, wine was a pleasant drink consumed by the elite classes and commoner populations during jubilee years, festivals, and banquets, fulfilling the social function of easy communication. In the present work, emphasis is put on the technical interpretation of the selected archaeological and historical sources that may explain present viticultural and oenological practices. Hopefully, this review will contribute to nurturing mutual understanding between archaeologists and wine professionals. Full article

The preservation of the Athenian Acropolis monuments constitutes an ongoing top-priority national project of global significance and impact. The project concerning the analytical investigation of the polychromy of the Acropolis monuments presented in this paper was part of the Acropolis Restoration Service (YSMA) program (2011–2015), regarding the restoration of the two corners of the west entablature of the Parthenon, which exhibited severe static damage, and a parallel restoration program of the Propylaea. The scope of this research was to investigate the materials in the paint decoration remains on the monuments by applying, entirely in situ, numerous non-invasive techniques on selected architectural members of the Parthenon and the Propylaea. The research focused, mainly, on surfaces where traces of colour or decoration patterns were visible to the naked eye. Furthermore, surfaces that are referred to in the literature as decorated but that are currently covered with weathering crusts (of white or black colour) and/or layers of patina (of yellowish and orange-brown hue), were also examined. The techniques applied in situ on the Acropolis monuments were X-ray fluorescence, micro-Raman, and Fourier Transform InfraRed (FTIR) spectroscopic techniques, conducted with the use of handheld or portable instruments. The scientific data gathered in situ are discussed in this paper to enhance our knowledge of the architectural polychromy of the classical period. Further investigation by applying analytical techniques on a few selected micro-samples would be highly complementary to this present work. Full article

In this paper, we present the development of a virtual reality application, namely “Roots in Greek History” or RoGH, which provides the user with a unique experiential travel or transfer back in time to specific historical periods and historical places which are part of the Greek history and its cultural heritage. The tool is a multi-purpose one which is mainly addressed to tourists, teachers, or researchers. The users are facilitated in deriving historical data, challenged to connect with the past, and are invited to explore the history and the time period, archaeological ruins, and monuments of the past through virtual reality. In order to achieve this goal, the system exploits a dynamically designed and organised chronology, which can provide historical content for various places and cities in different times of their history. Users are given the freedom to choose “place” and “time” and consequently to have access to a variety of content (including 2D or 3D models, text, photos, multimedia, etc.), in an entertaining and educational procedure that creates a personalised information path and leads to empowering knowledge. Full article

A protocol for the representation of traditional crafts and the tools to implement this are proposed. The proposed protocol is a method for the systematic collection and organization of digital assets and knowledge, their representation into a formal model, and their utilization for research, education, and preservation. A set of digital tools accompanies this protocol that enables the online curation of craft representations. The proposed approach was elaborated and evaluated with craft practitioners in three case studies. Lessons learned are shared and an outlook for future work is provided. Full article

The Olavide Museum in Madrid, which was founded in the 19th century, preserves one of the most important collections in the world of three-dimensional dermatological models made of polychrome beeswax. These models have been used for the training of numerous generations of dermatologists in Spain. Unfortunately, many of the figures were preserved in precarious conditions during the time that the museum was closed in the middle of the 20th century, and some could not be found after its reopening. In this paper, we show a method for the recovery of a missing model of which only the original plaster cast remains. For this purpose, we use the combination of a structured light scanner and 3D printing, together with traditional techniques, to reproduce a copy of the original cast, in order to prevent its deterioration during the wax casting. As a result of this study, a highly realistic figure was obtained, which represented, in great detail, the small superficial reliefs of the skin lesions, as well as their colour. The conclusion of this research is that it is possible to recreate, with precision, a didactic model in beeswax from its mould, without the need to use the mould in the process, which avoids any risk of deterioration in the process. Full article