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Animals
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Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics in Animal Anesthesiology
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Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics in Animal Anesthesiology

A special issue of Animals (ISSN 2076-2615). This special issue belongs to the section "Veterinary Clinical Studies".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (20 January 2025) | Viewed by 16257

Special Issue Editor

Dr. Pedro Marín Carrillo

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Murcia, 30071 Murcia, Spain
Interests: pharmacokinetics; antibiotics; anesthetics
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Anesthesia is the state of immobilization and elimination of pain, which is essential to all surgical procedures. The ideal anesthetic preserves cardiac output and other physiologic parameters, provides intraoperative analgesia that extends to the postoperative period, and is reversible and safe for the patient, operator, and environment. A variety of anesthetic agents are available for experimental surgery and may be administered parenterally or by inhalation.

Pharmacokinetics explains what happens to a drug in the body, whereas pharmacodynamics describes the actions produced by the drug in the body. Therefore, the effects of a drug result from a combination of its pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic characteristics in the individual. Wherever possible, drug administration should be based on a measured patient response, which will incorporate both of these aspects of its pharmacology.

Often, there are few registered drugs for minor or exotic species, which causes the use of different drugs under exceptional prescription by adapting or extrapolating the recommended dosage from major species. This extrapolation can cause potential overdosing or underdosing, with the risks of toxicity or clinical unsuccess.

The aim of this Special Issue is to publish original research papers or reviews about the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of anesthetics in animals.

We invite you to share your recent findings through this Special Issue.

Dr. Pedro Marín Carrillo
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Animals is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2400 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • pharmacodynamics
  • pharmacokinetics
  • anesthesia
  • sedation
  • monitoring
  • recovery

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Published Papers (7 papers)

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15 pages, 1739 KiB  
Article
Welfare Implications of Low-Dose Atipamezole Reversal of Tiletamine/Zolazepam/Xylazine Anaesthesia in Pigs
by Rachel Layton, David S. Beggs, Andrew Fisher, Peter Mansell, Daniel Layton, Peter A. Durr, Teegan Allen, Grace Taylor, Michael L. Kelly, David T. Williams and Kelly J. Stanger
Animals 2025, 15(2), 258; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani15020258 - 17 Jan 2025
Viewed by 376
Abstract
Anaesthesia is sometimes required for the effective restraint of laboratory pigs for sample collection. Yet, anaesthesia can initiate a range of physiological disruptions that can increase variability in study data and lead to poorer animal welfare. Judicious use of anaesthesia can mitigate experimental, [...] Read more.
Anaesthesia is sometimes required for the effective restraint of laboratory pigs for sample collection. Yet, anaesthesia can initiate a range of physiological disruptions that can increase variability in study data and lead to poorer animal welfare. Judicious use of anaesthesia can mitigate experimental, human safety, and animal welfare concerns, but it does not eliminate the potential for adverse effects. The use of reversal agents can shorten recovery time and reduce the physiological impacts of anaesthesia but can also cause additional side effects. We, therefore, trialled the use of low-dose atipamezole (0.12 mg/kg) for the antagonism of xylazine in laboratory pigs anaesthetised using a combination of xylazine and zolazepam/tiletamine. We measured time to recovery, selected clinical variables, recovery characteristics, and behaviours to investigate if a low dose of antagonist decreased recovery time and reduced the physiological impacts of anaesthesia whilst avoiding adverse negative side effects. We categorised side effects and behaviours as having either a low or high negative welfare impact based on the potential risk of injury and whether behaviours were displayed before or after return to consciousness. Collectively, our results indicated that while the use of low-dose atipamezole decreased recovery time and improved thermoregulation in most pigs, it introduced and exacerbated adverse side effects and behaviours that can lead to poorer welfare outcomes for laboratory pigs. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics in Animal Anesthesiology)
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16 pages, 2770 KiB  
Article
Comparison Between Medetomidine and a Medetomidine–Vatinoxan Combination on Cardiorespiratory Variables in Dogs Undergoing Ovariectomy Anesthetized with Butorphanol, Propofol and Sevoflurane or Desflurane
by Francesca Cubeddu, Gerolamo Masala, Francesca Corda, Andrea Corda and Giovanni Mario Careddu
Animals 2024, 14(22), 3322; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani14223322 - 19 Nov 2024
Viewed by 869
Abstract
The aim of this study was to compare the effects of a medetomidine–vatinoxan combination versus medetomidine alone on heart rate (HR) and mean arterial pressure (MAP) in a short-term surgery in dogs. Four groups of 10 dogs were administered as follows: medetomidine and [...] Read more.
The aim of this study was to compare the effects of a medetomidine–vatinoxan combination versus medetomidine alone on heart rate (HR) and mean arterial pressure (MAP) in a short-term surgery in dogs. Four groups of 10 dogs were administered as follows: medetomidine and sevoflurane; medetomidine and desflurane; medetomidine–vatinoxan and sevoflurane; and medetomidine–vatinoxan and desflurane. After administration, the increase in MAP soon stopped at 102–104 mmHg in the two groups administered medetomidine–vatinoxan, compared with significantly higher values of 143–126 mmHg achieved in the two groups administered medetomidine alone. The lowest MAPs in the two medetomidine–vatinoxan groups were 46–50 mmHg, while in the medetomidine groups, they were 58–79 mmHg. From 3 min onwards after administration, in the medetomidine–vatinoxan treatments, HR remained at values very close to those of pre-administration, between 83 and 118 beats min−1, while in the medetomidine treatments, it dropped to 36–43 beats min−1 and then slowly rose to reach 71–90 beats min−1. These results encourage the use of vatinoxan in clinical settings, particularly in anesthetic protocols for dogs when bradycardia and an increase in systemic pressure should be avoided. Further clinical studies are needed to manage the short periods of hypotension, as well as the slight reduction in sedative and pain-relieving medetomidine effects found, particularly when vatinoxan is in combination with desflurane rather than sevoflurane. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics in Animal Anesthesiology)
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11 pages, 614 KiB  
Article
Determining the Pharmacokinetic Properties of Two Different Doses of Meloxicam in Barred Owls (Strix varia)
by Zoey N. Lex, Laken Russell, Corinne Mayer, Jordan Padlo, Kimberly L. Boykin, Mark G. Papich and Mark A. Mitchell
Animals 2024, 14(21), 3086; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani14213086 - 26 Oct 2024
Viewed by 800
Abstract
Anthropogenic activities have negatively affected many birds, including owls. The Wildlife Hospital of Louisiana (WHL) has seen a 3.2-fold increase in barred owl (Strix varia) cases over the past eight years (2023, 134; 2015, 42). Because most of these animals present [...] Read more.
Anthropogenic activities have negatively affected many birds, including owls. The Wildlife Hospital of Louisiana (WHL) has seen a 3.2-fold increase in barred owl (Strix varia) cases over the past eight years (2023, 134; 2015, 42). Because most of these animals present with traumatic injuries, analgesics should be considered in their treatment plan. To date, no study has measured the pharmacokinetics of an analgesic in barred owls. The goals of this study were to determine the harmonic means, times to maximum concentration, and elimination half-lives for single 1 mg/kg and 2 mg/kg intramuscular doses of meloxicam. Twelve barred owls (1 mg/kg, n = 6; 2 mg/kg, n = 6) admitted to the WHL and determined to be clinically normal based on examination and blood work were recruited for this study. Meloxicam was administered intramuscularly, and blood samples were collected intermittently over 12 h to measure plasma concentrations using high-performance liquid chromatography. Both doses had rapid elimination half-lives (1 mg/kg, 0.99 ± 0.1 h; 2 mg/kg, 1.07 ± 0.43 h) and were below the limits of quantification (0.1 µg/mL) by 6–12 h. Based on these results, 1 and 2 mg/kg doses of meloxicam were found to produce plasma concentrations below therapeutic concentrations for less than four hours, making current twice-daily recommended dosing intervals unlikely to provide desired analgesia. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics in Animal Anesthesiology)
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11 pages, 414 KiB  
Article
A Comparison of the Intrarectal and Intramuscular Effects of a Dexmedetomidine, Ketamine and Midazolam Mixture on Tear Production in Cats: A Randomized Controlled Trial
by Andrea Paolini, Massimo Vignoli, Nicola Bernabò, Amanda Bianchi, Roberto Tamburro, Maria Cristina Pincelli, Francesca Del Signore, Andrea De Bonis, Martina Rosto, Francesco Collivignarelli, Clelia Distefano and Ilaria Cerasoli
Animals 2024, 14(1), 145; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani14010145 - 31 Dec 2023
Viewed by 1627
Abstract
Cats are often easily stressed and uncooperative. The use of sedative agents in the feline species is widely used to perform even minor clinical and diagnostic procedures. The aim of this study is to assess the impact on tear film production of the [...] Read more.
Cats are often easily stressed and uncooperative. The use of sedative agents in the feline species is widely used to perform even minor clinical and diagnostic procedures. The aim of this study is to assess the impact on tear film production of the intrarectal route (IR) administration of a mixture of dexmedetomidine, ketamine and midazolam in comparison with the intramuscular (IM) one. A group of twenty cats were involved in a randomized and blinded clinical trial. A clinical and ophthalmological examination was conducted on the cats. The IR group received dexmedetomidine 0.003 mg kg−1, ketamine 4 mg kg−1 and midazolam 0.4 mg kg−1; the IM group received dexmedetomidine 0.003 mg kg−1, ketamine 2 mg kg−1 and midazolam 0.2 mg kg−1. A Shirmer tear test I (STT- I) was conducted 1 h before sedation and 2′, 10′, 20′, 30′, 40′, and 80′ post drug administration. The reaction to STT-I administration was also evaluated. The IM group has a lower mean tear production than the IR group for all time points evaluated. Cats in the IM group showed less reaction to STT-I administration. This study may suggest that the effect of sedative agents administered by the IR route has a lower incidence on tear production than the IM one. The use of eye lubricant is recommended in any case. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics in Animal Anesthesiology)
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12 pages, 692 KiB  
Article
Effect of Xylazine on Pharmacokinetics and Physiological Efficacy of Intravenous Carprofen in Castrated Goats Kids
by Kamil Uney, Murat Yuksel, Duygu Durna Corum, Devran Coskun, Erdinc Turk, Hasan Basri Dingil and Orhan Corum
Animals 2023, 13(17), 2700; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani13172700 - 24 Aug 2023
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1640
Abstract
Carprofen can be used in the castration process of male goats due to its low side effects, long elimination half-life, and long-term effect. However, no studies were found on the pharmacokinetics and physiological efficacy of carprofen when employed for castration in male goats. [...] Read more.
Carprofen can be used in the castration process of male goats due to its low side effects, long elimination half-life, and long-term effect. However, no studies were found on the pharmacokinetics and physiological efficacy of carprofen when employed for castration in male goats. The aim of this study was to determine the effect of xylazine (0.05 mg/kg, intramuscular) on the pharmacokinetics and physiological efficacy following intravenous administration of carprofen (4 mg/kg, intravenous) in male goat kids castrated using the burdizzo method. Thirty male Kilis goat kids (5–6 months and 18–30 kg of body weight) were randomly assigned to five groups (n = 6) as follows: healthy control (HC), castration control (CAST), castration+carprofen (CAST+CRP), castration+xylazine (CAST+XYL), and castration+xylazine+carprofen (CAST+XYL+CRP). Plasma concentrations of carprofen were analyzed via a non-compartmental method. Physiological parameters including serum cortisol, scrotal temperature, rectal temperature, and scrotal circumference were determined. Xylazine caused a decrease in the volume of distribution and clearance and an increase in the area under the curve of carprofen in CAST+XYL+CRP group (p < 0.05). The mean cortisol concentrations in CAST+CRP and CAST+XYL remained lower compared to CAST (p < 0.05). The mean cortisol concentrations in CAST+XYL+CRP were lower than in CAST+CRP and CAST+XYL (p < 0.05). In addition, the effect of carprofen administration alone on reducing the initial cortisol response to castration was observed from 6 to 48 h, while in combination with xylazine, it was observed immediately up to 48 h. No treatment differences were observed in rectal temperature, scrotal temperature, and scrotal circumference (p > 0.05). Xylazine caused an increase in plasma concentration and a decrease in clearance of carprofen after co-administration. However, when the effect of the combined administration of carprofen with xylazine on cortisol is evaluated, their combined use in castration process may be beneficial. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics in Animal Anesthesiology)
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12 pages, 5113 KiB  
Article
An Ultrasound-Guided Latero-Ventral Approach to Perform the Quadratus Lumborum Block in Dog Cadavers
by André Marchina-Gonçalves, Francisco G. Laredo, Francisco Gil, Marta Soler, Amalia Agut, José Ignacio Redondo and Eliseo Belda
Animals 2023, 13(13), 2214; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani13132214 - 6 Jul 2023
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 4763
Abstract
The QL block is a high-level locoregional anesthesia technique, which aims to provide analgesia to the abdomen. Several approaches of the QL block have been studied to find out which one allows a greater distribution of the injectate. The aim of this study [...] Read more.
The QL block is a high-level locoregional anesthesia technique, which aims to provide analgesia to the abdomen. Several approaches of the QL block have been studied to find out which one allows a greater distribution of the injectate. The aim of this study is to compare the traditional interfascial QL block (IQL) with a new latero-ventral approach (LVQL). We hypothesize that this new approach could be safer and easier to perform, since the injectate is administered more superficially and further away from vital structures. Our second objective is to assess whether a higher volume of injectate (0.6 mL/kg) could reach the ventral branches of the last thoracic nerves, leading to a blockade of the cranial abdomen. Six thawed canine cadavers (12 hemiabdomens) were used for this purpose. Both approaches were performed in all cadavers. A combination of methylene blue/iopromide was administered to each hemiabdomen, randomly assigned to the LVQL or IQL. No differences were found regarding the ease of perform the LVQL with respect to IQL. The results show that both techniques reached the ventral branches from L1 to L3, although only the IQL consistently stained the sympathetic trunk (5/6 IQL vs. 1/6 LVQL). The use of a higher volume did not enhance a more cranial distribution of the injectate. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics in Animal Anesthesiology)
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12 pages, 1317 KiB  
Article
Haemodynamic Effects of Pimobendan during General Anaesthesia in Healthy Senior Dogs: A Prospective, Randomised, Triple-Blinded, Placebo-Controlled Clinical Study
by Ignacio Sández, José I. Redondo, Pablo A. Donati and José Gómez
Animals 2023, 13(13), 2110; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani13132110 - 26 Jun 2023
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 5167
Abstract
Pimobendan is an inotropic and vasodilator drug with no sympathomimetic effects. This study aimed to evaluate the haemodynamic effects of pimobendan during anaesthesia in healthy senior dogs. A prospective, randomised, triple-blinded, placebo-controlled clinical study was conducted. Thirty-three dogs (median [range]: 9 [7, 12] [...] Read more.
Pimobendan is an inotropic and vasodilator drug with no sympathomimetic effects. This study aimed to evaluate the haemodynamic effects of pimobendan during anaesthesia in healthy senior dogs. A prospective, randomised, triple-blinded, placebo-controlled clinical study was conducted. Thirty-three dogs (median [range]: 9 [7, 12] years) were anaesthetised for surgical procedures. The dogs were randomly allocated into two groups: eighteen dogs received intravenous pimobendan at a dose of 0.15 mg/kg (PIMOBENDAN), and fifteen dogs received intravenous saline solutions at a dose of 0.2 mL/kg (PLACEBO). Data were recorded before, 1 min, 10 min, and 20 min after injection. Velocity-time integral (VTI), peak-velocity (PV), and mean-acceleration (MA) were measured using an oesophageal Doppler monitor (ODM). Heart rate and mean arterial pressure were also registered. The data were analysed using a two-way ANOVA for trimmed means. Statistical differences were considered if p < 0.05. Twenty minutes after injection, the VTI (13.0 cm [10.4, 22.3]), PV (95.0 [83.0, 160] m/s), and MA (12.6 [9.40, 17.0] m/s2) were significantly higher in the PIMOBENDAN group compared to the PLACEBO group (VTI: 10.5 [6.50, 17.4] cm, PV: 80.0 [62.0, 103] m/s and MA: 10.2 [7.00, 16.0] ms2). No significant differences were observed in the rest of the variables. Using pimobendan during anaesthesia increases VTI, PV, and MA, as measured by an ODM. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics in Animal Anesthesiology)
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