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Staphylococcus spp. in Animals: Resistance to Antimicrobials, Virulence and Genetic Lineages

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A special issue of Antibiotics (ISSN 2079-6382). This special issue belongs to the section "Genetic and Biochemical Studies of Antibiotic Activity and Resistance".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 March 2021) | Viewed by 37152

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. John Barlow

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Guest Editor

Department of Animal and Veterinary Sciences, University of Vermont, Burlington, VT, USA
Interests: antibiotic resistance; epidemiology; molecular epidemiology; dairy cattle; veterinary science; bioinformatics; antimicrobial stewardship; One Health; zoonotic disease; staphylococci

Dr. Laura Selva Martínez

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor

Universidad Cardenal Herrera-CEU, Moncada, Spain
Interests: Staphylococcus spp.; MRSA; microbiology; rabbits; typing

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Staphylococcus spp., especially S. aureus, are part of the normal microbiota of healthy humans and animals, but they can also be opportunistic pathogens. Methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) is a serious health problem, since it shows resistance to almost all β-lactam antibiotics. In the early 2000s a MRSA lineage (ST398) was recognized in livestock and associated farm workers, suggesting spillovers between livestock and their caretakers. This lineage, described as livestock-associated MRSA (LA-MRSA), appears to now be an important cause of human infections in some regions. It was later reported in different farm animals, including horses, cattle, poultry or rabbits worldwide. Several S. aureus MLST lineages have been associated with animals, including clonal complexes (CC): CC1 and CC398 (livestock), CC5 (avian), CC130 (multi-host), CC133 and CC151 (ruminants), and CC425 (ruminants and wild mammals). In 2011, a new mec gene (mecC) was described, associated with genetic lineages of S. aureus adapted to animals, especially CC130. MRSA-mecC is an emerging problem, detected in production and free-living animals, and sporadically in people. Therefore, the main subject of this Special Issue includes any article on the presence of Staphylococcus spp. in humans and animals, antimicrobial resistance, especially MRSA, and the study of the lineages involved.

Dr. Laura Selva Martínez
Guest Editor

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Keywords

Staphylococcus spp.
Methicillin-resistance
MRSA
mecA
mecC
Staphylococcus coagulase negative (CoNS)
antibiotic resistance
virulence, clonal complex

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Published Papers (11 papers)

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10 pages, 703 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Absence of Host-Specific Genes in Canine and Human Staphylococcus pseudintermedius as Inferred from Comparative Genomics

by Alice Wegener, Els M. Broens, Linda van der Graaf-van Bloois, Aldert L. Zomer, Caroline E. Visser, Jan van Zeijl, Coby van der Meer, Johannes G. Kusters, Alex W. Friedrich, Greetje A. Kampinga, Gregorius J. Sips, Leonard Smeets, Manfred E. J. van Kerckhoven, Arjen J. Timmerman, Jaap A. Wagenaar and Birgitta Duim

Antibiotics 2021, 10(7), 854; https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics10070854 - 14 Jul 2021

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2445

Abstract

Staphylococcus pseudintermedius is an important pathogen in dogs that occasionally causes infections in humans as an opportunistic pathogen of elderly and immunocompromised people. This study compared the genomic relatedness and antimicrobial resistance genes using genome-wide association study (GWAS) to examine host association of canine and human S. pseudintermedius isolates. Canine (n = 25) and human (n = 32) methicillin-susceptible S. pseudintermedius (MSSP) isolates showed a high level of genetic diversity with an overrepresentation of clonal complex CC241 in human isolates. This clonal complex was associated with carriage of a plasmid containing a bacteriocin with cytotoxic properties, a CRISPR-cas domain and a pRE25-like mobile element containing five antimicrobial resistance genes. Multi-drug resistance (MDR) was predicted in 13 (41%) of human isolates and 14 (56%) of canine isolates. CC241 represented 54% of predicted MDR isolates from humans and 21% of predicted MDR canine isolates. While it had previously been suggested that certain host-specific genes were present the current GWAS analysis did not identify any genes that were significantly associated with human or canine isolates. In conclusion, this is the first genomic study showing that MSSP is genetically diverse in both hosts and that multidrug resistance is important in dog and human-associated S. pseudintermedius isolates. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Staphylococcus spp. in Animals: Resistance to Antimicrobials, Virulence and Genetic Lineages)

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12 pages, 302 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Carriage of Multidrug Resistance Staphylococci in Shelter Dogs in Timisoara, Romania

by Dégi János, Herman Viorel, Iancu Ionica, Pascu Corina, Florea Tiana and Dascălu Roxana

Antibiotics 2021, 10(7), 801; https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics10070801 - 1 Jul 2021

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 3067

Abstract

The present study aimed to determine the prevalence of Staphylococcus species, which pose risks for public health, by evaluating skin samples collected from dogs in an animal shelter in Timisoara. Skin samples were taken from 78 dogs, which were either clinically healthy or suffering from dermatological conditions. Staphylococcus spp. was isolated and recognized based on conventional methods based on colony appearance, microscopic morphology, sugar fermentation, and coagulase activity. Following biochemical analysis, Staphylococcus isolates were subject to PCR tests to detect sa-f and sa-r genes to confirm the isolates to genus level. The typical colonies were identified to species level using biochemical methods, namely the VITEK^®2 ID-GP64 identification card (bioMerieux, France). The phenotypic antimicrobial resistance profiling was performed using the VITEK^®2 AST GP Gram-positive specific bacteria card (bioMerieux, France). Forty-three samples were confirmed as positive for Staphylococcus spp. Staphylococcus isolates were classified into the following categories: S. aureus, S. pseudintermedius, S. intermedius, S. epidermitis, S. haemolyticus, and S. hyicus. Eight (18.60%, 8/43) out of all the samples harbored the mecA gene, highlighting the distribution among isolated staphylococcal species: Staphylococcus pseudintermedius (4/43, 9.30%), Staphylococcus intermedius (1/43, 2.32%) and Staphylococcus aureus (3/43, 9.30%), respectively. The phenomenon of resistance was present, to the following antimicrobial agents: erythromycin (38/43, 88.37%), benzylpenicillin, kanamycin, and tetracycline with 37 strains (37/43, 86.04%), gentamycin (30/43, 69.76%), chloramphenicol (29/43, 67.44%), trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole (27/43, 62.79%), ampicillin (26/43, 60,46%), rifampicin (25/43, 58,13%), imipenem (14/43, 32,55%), nitrofurantoin (11/43, 25.58%), oxacillin (8/43, 18.60%), vancomycin (4/43, 9.30%) and clindamycin (3/43, 6.97%), respectively. The presence of multidrug-resistant zoonotic staphylococci in clinically healthy dogs and dogs with skin lesions is an animal health and human health concern. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Staphylococcus spp. in Animals: Resistance to Antimicrobials, Virulence and Genetic Lineages)

11 pages, 260 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Feline Otitis Externa Caused by Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus with Mixed Hemolytic Phenotype and Overview of Possible Genetic Backgrounds

by Jana Avberšek, Bojan Papić, Darja Kušar, Vladimira Erjavec, Katja Seme, Majda Golob and Irena Zdovc

Antibiotics 2021, 10(5), 599; https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics10050599 - 18 May 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2509

Abstract

Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is an important cause of nosocomial infections in humans, but its importance in small animal practice is increasing. Here, we present a case of feline otitis externa (OE) caused by MRSA; both hemolytic and nonhemolytic variants with a stable phenotype were recovered from the external auditory canal after infection was detected by routine otoscopy. One isolate per variant underwent antimicrobial susceptibility testing (AST) by broth microdilution method, conventional spa typing and whole-genome sequencing (WGS). The results showed that both variants were genetically related and were of sequence type (ST) 1327, SCCmec type IV and spa type t005. AST and WGS showed that both isolates were resistant to β-lactams and sensitive to all tested non-β-lactam antibiotics. Both isolates were pvl-negative, but encoded several other virulence genes (aur, hlgABC, sak, scn, seg, sei, sem, sen, seo and seu). Genetic background of the mixed hemolytic phenotype was not identified; no differences in the agr locus or other regulatory regions were detected. Three single-nucleotide polymorphisms were identified but could not be associated with hemolysis. This well-documented case of MRSA infection in companion animals adds to the reports of MRSA infections with a mixed hemolytic phenotype. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Staphylococcus spp. in Animals: Resistance to Antimicrobials, Virulence and Genetic Lineages)

14 pages, 999 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Detection of Antimicrobial Resistance of Bacteria Staphylococcus chromogenes Isolated from Sheep’s Milk and Cheese

by Ivana Regecová, Jana Výrostková, František Zigo, Gabriela Gregová and Mariana Kováčová

Antibiotics 2021, 10(5), 570; https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics10050570 - 12 May 2021

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 2808

Abstract

Antimicrobial and multidrug resistance is detected in nonaureus staphylococci, including Staphylococcus chromogenes, which commonly causes intramammary infections. Recent clinical studies point to the presence of methicillin-resistant S. chromogenes. Therefore, this study aims to determine the prevalence of this species in samples of sheep‘s milk and cheeses made from them. Isolates were identified by polymerase chain reaction and matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI–TOF). A total of 208 staphylococcal isolates were identified. Of these, 18% were identified as S. chromogenes. The antimicrobial resistance of the identified isolates was determined using the agar dilution method against penicillin, ceftaroline, teicoplanin, gentamicin, erythromycin, tetracycline, and ofloxacin. The highest resistance was found to penicillin (95%), tetracycline (86%), and oxacillin (81%). The highest sensitivity was confirmed for gentamicin (55%). The study also confirmed the presence of methicillin resistant staphylococcal isolates (30%) based on the phenotypic manifestation of antimicrobial resistance and detection of the presence of the mecA gene. The study shows that the tested isolates (62%) were multidrug resistant. Resistance to two antibiotics was most often found (39%). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Staphylococcus spp. in Animals: Resistance to Antimicrobials, Virulence and Genetic Lineages)

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15 pages, 1216 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Phenotypic and Molecular Traits of Staphylococcus coagulans Associated with Canine Skin Infections in Portugal

by Sofia Santos Costa, Valéria Oliveira, Maria Serrano, Constança Pomba and Isabel Couto

Antibiotics 2021, 10(5), 518; https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics10050518 - 2 May 2021

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3046

Abstract

Staphylococcus coagulans is among the three most frequent pathogens of canine pyoderma. Yet, studies on this species are scarce. Twenty-seven S. coagulans and one S. schleiferi, corresponding to all pyoderma-related isolations from these two species at two veterinary laboratories in Lisbon, Portugal, between 1999 and 2018 (Lab 1) or 2018 (Lab 2), were analyzed. Isolates were identified by the analysis of the nuc gene and urease production. Antibiotic susceptibility towards 27 antibiotics was evaluated by disk diffusion. Fourteen antibiotic resistance genes were screened by PCR. Isolates were typed by SmaI-PFGE. Two S. coagulans isolates (2/27, 7.4%) were methicillin-resistant (MRSC, mecA+) and four (4/27, 14.8%) displayed a multidrug-resistant (MDR) phenotype. We observed resistance to penicillin (17/27, 63.0%), fluoroquinolones (11/27, 40.7%), erythromycin and clindamycin (3/27, 11.1%), fusidic acid (3/27, 11.1%) and tetracycline (1/27, 3.7%). The blaZ and erm(B) genes were carried by 16 and 1 isolates resistant to penicillin and erythromycin/clindamycin, respectively. Only three S. coagulans carried plasmids. The single S. schleiferi isolate presented an MDR phenotype. SmaI-PFGE revealed a limited genetic diversity of S. coagulans, with a predominant lineage present from 2001 to 2018. This study describes the first MRSC causing canine infection in Portugal and reveals a high burden of antimicrobial resistance, with the emergence of MDR phenotypes within the main lineages. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Staphylococcus spp. in Animals: Resistance to Antimicrobials, Virulence and Genetic Lineages)

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17 pages, 1719 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Diversity and Risk Factors Associated with Multidrug and Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococci Isolated from Cats Admitted to a Veterinary Clinic in Eastern Province, Saudi Arabia

by Ahmed Elmoslemany, Ibrahim Elsohaby, Mohammed Alorabi, Mohamed Alkafafy, Theeb Al-Marri, Ali Aldoweriej, Fanan A. Alaql, Abdullah Almubarak and Mahmoud Fayez

Antibiotics 2021, 10(4), 367; https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics10040367 - 31 Mar 2021

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 3595

Abstract

Understanding the distribution, antimicrobial resistance (AMR), and risk factors associated with multidrug-resistant (MDR) and methicillin-resistant staphylococci (MRS) isolated from cats admitted to veterinary clinics may decrease the risk of MDR and MRS transmission to humans and other cats. As such, the objectives of this study were to investigate the diversity in Staphylococcus spp. recovered from different anatomical locations in healthy and diseased cats and to determine the occurrence of MDR and MRS spp. as well as possible risk factors associated with colonization in these cats. Five swabs were collected from the anus, skin, ear canal, conjunctival sac, and nares of each cat (209 healthy and 191 diseased) admitted to a veterinary clinic in Eastern Province, Saudi Arabia, between January and December 2018. Prior to sample collection, cat owners completed a questionnaire collecting information on cat demographics, health status, management, and antimicrobial usage. In total, 179 Staphylococcus isolates were recovered from healthy (n = 71) and diseased (n = 108) cats, including 94 (52.5%) coagulase-positive staphylococci (CoPS), and 85 (47.5%) coagulase-negative staphylococci (CoNS). Five Staphylococcus spp. were identified, namely, Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus pseudintermedius, Staphylococcus felis, Staphylococcus capitis, and Staphylococcus saprophyticus. Staphylococcus isolates were most commonly resistant to penicillin (56.4%) and ciprofloxacin (25.7%); however, no isolate was resistant to clindamycin. Thirty (16.8%) Staphylococcus spp. (24 S. aureus and 6 S. pseudintermedius) isolates were MDR, with resistance to up to six different antibiotic classes. Only 17 (9.5%) Staphylococcus spp. (15 methicillin-resistant S. aureus and 2 methicillin-resistant S. pseudintermedius) harbored the mecA gene. Risk factor analysis showed that cats with a history of antibiotic therapy, those raised mainly indoors with a child, and those who visit a veterinary clinic for treatment were at higher risk of MDR and MRS colonization. In conclusion, MDR and MRS were common in healthy and diseased cats in Saudi Arabia. Thus, an effective antimicrobial stewardship program and further studies using a One Health approach are required to investigate the role of cats as vectors for AMR transmission to humans. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Staphylococcus spp. in Animals: Resistance to Antimicrobials, Virulence and Genetic Lineages)

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10 pages, 307 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comparison of the Staphylococcal Chromosome Cassette (SCC) mec in Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and Non-aureus Staphylococci (MRNAS) from Animals and Humans

by Cyrille Ngassam Tchamba, Jean-Noël Duprez, Pierrick Lucas, Yannick Blanchard, Filip Boyen, Freddy Haesebrouck, Maria A. Argudín, Jacques Mainil and Damien Thiry

Antibiotics 2021, 10(3), 256; https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics10030256 - 4 Mar 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3209

Abstract

Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and non-aureus staphylococci (MRNAS) cause different infections in animals, including mastitis, in livestock and humans. This study aimed to identify and compare the staphylococcal chromosome cassette mec (SCCmec) types of MRSA or MRNAS isolated from several animal species and humans in different countries. Of 1462 S. aureus and non-aureus staphylococci, 68 grew on Chrom MRSA ID^® agar, were phenotypically resistant to cefoxitin and tested positive with the PCR for the mecA gene. These 60 MRSA and 8 MRNAS were isolated in Belgium mainly from cows (livestock-associated (LA) MRS) and humans (community-acquired (CA) MRS) and in Japan from dogs and cats. The SCCmec cassettes were identified by multiplex PCR in 52 MRSA and 7 MRNAS and by whole genome sequencing (WGS) in 8 additional MRSA. The SCCmec types IV and V were the most frequent in Belgian LA-MRS and CA-MRS, while the SCCmec type II was identified in four of the five Japanese MRSA. The remaining isolate was a bovine S. haemolyticus in which no SCCmec was identified. These results confirm the high prevalence of the SCCmec types IV and V in LA-MRS and CA-MRS in Belgium, emphasizing the possible public health hazard of the former, and the absence of SCCmec in some MRNAS. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Staphylococcus spp. in Animals: Resistance to Antimicrobials, Virulence and Genetic Lineages)

17 pages, 4301 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Staphylococcus spp. Isolated from Bovine Subclinical Mastitis in Different Regions of Brazil: Molecular Typing and Biofilm Gene Expression Analysis by RT-qPCR

by Priscila Luiza Mello, Danilo Flávio Moraes Riboli, Lisiane de Almeida Martins, Maria Aparecida Vasconcelos Paiva Brito, Cassiano Victória, Letícia Calixto Romero and Maria de Lourdes Ribeiro de Souza da Cunha

Antibiotics 2020, 9(12), 888; https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics9120888 - 10 Dec 2020

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 3420

Abstract

Bovine mastitis is mainly caused by bacteria of the genus Staphylococcus spp., which possess different virulence factors, including the capacity for biofilm formation that provides enhanced protection against the action of immune system components and serves as a barrier against the penetration of antimicrobial agents. This study aimed to characterize 181 Staphylococcus spp. Strains—including Staphylococcusaureus and coagulase-negative staphylococci (CoNS) isolated from bovine subclinical mastitis in six Brazilian states—by molecular methods. RT-qPCR was used to verify the expression of genes of the ica operon—mainly responsible for biofilm formation—as well as bap and bhp. Chromosome similarity among the isolates was investigated by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) and multilocus sequence typing (MLST). The icaA gene was detected in 79 (43.6%) isolates, icaB in 24 (13.2%), icaC in 57 (31.4%), and icaD in 127 (70.1%). The bap gene was identified in 66 (36.4%) isolates, while the bhp gene was found in nine (4.9%). RT-qPCR confirmed the expression of the icaA gene in 60 (75.9%) isolates, of icaB in six (25%), of icaC in 26 (45.6%), and of icaD in 80 (63%). Clonal typing of the isolates by PFGE permitted the identification of eight Staphylococcusaureus clusters that simultaneously included ≥3 strains, with a similarity of ≥80%. Regarding the other species studied, three clusters were observed for Staphylococcuschromogenes and four clusters for Staphylococcusepidermidis. Only one cluster each was identified for Staphylococcussaprophyticus and Staphylococcussimulans, while the other species did not form any cluster. With respect to MLST, ST126 and ST1 were the prevalent sequence types in S. aureus, while in S.epidermidis all sequence types were different. These results reveal strains with the same evolutionary origin as other isolates, which might cause infections in humans and animals, suggesting their ability to spread between these species. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Staphylococcus spp. in Animals: Resistance to Antimicrobials, Virulence and Genetic Lineages)

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14 pages, 585 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Staphylococcus aureus and Methicillin Resistant S. aureus in Nepalese Primates: Resistance to Antimicrobials, Virulence, and Genetic Lineages

by Marilyn C. Roberts, Prabhu Raj Joshi, Stefan Monecke, Ralf Ehricht, Elke Müller, Darius Gawlik, Celia Diezel, Sascha D. Braun, Saroj Paudel, Mahesh Acharya, Laxman Khanal, Narayan P. Koju, Mukesh Chalise and Randall C. Kyes

Antibiotics 2020, 9(10), 689; https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics9100689 - 13 Oct 2020

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 5233

Abstract

Staphylococcus aureus is a ubiquitous pathogen and colonizer in humans and animals. There are few studies on the molecular epidemiology of S. aureus in wild monkeys and apes. S. aureus carriage in rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) and Assam macaques (Macaca assamensis) is a species that has not previously been sampled and lives in remote environments with limited human contact. Forty Staphylococcus aureus isolates including 33 methicillin-susceptible S. aureus (MSSA) and seven methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) were characterized. Thirty-four isolates were from rhesus macaques and six isolates (five MSSA, one MRSA) were from Assam macaques. Isolates were characterized using StaphyType DNA microarrays. Five of the MRSA including one from Assam macaque were CC22 MRSA-IV (PVL+/tst+), which is a strain previously identified in Nepalese rhesus. One MRSA each were CC6 MRSA-IV and CC772 MRSA-V (PVL+). One MSSA each belonged to CC15, CC96, and CC2990. Six MRSA isolates carried the blaZ, while ten known CC isolates (seven MRSA, three MSSA) carried a variety of genes including aacA-aphD, aphA3, erm(C), mph(C), dfrA, msrA, and/or sat genes. The other 30 MSSA isolates belonged to 17 novel clonal complexes, carried no antibiotic resistance genes, lacked Panton–Valentine Leukocidin (PVL), and most examined exotoxin genes. Four clonal complexes carried egc enterotoxin genes, and four harbored edinB, which is an exfoliative toxin homologue. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Staphylococcus spp. in Animals: Resistance to Antimicrobials, Virulence and Genetic Lineages)

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14 pages, 773 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Surveillance of Antibiotic Resistance of Maltose-Negative Staphylococcus aureus in South African Dairy Herds

by Joanne Karzis, Inge-Marié Petzer, Edward F. Donkin, Vinny Naidoo and Eric M.C. Etter

Antibiotics 2020, 9(9), 616; https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics9090616 - 18 Sep 2020

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3155

Abstract

Antibiotic resistance has been reported since the 1940s in both human and veterinary medicine. Many years of monitoring milk samples in South Africa led to identification of a novel maltose-negative Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) strain, which appears to be an emerging pathogen. In this study, the susceptibility of this strain to antibiotics was evaluated over time, during diverse seasons in various provinces and according to somatic cell count (SCC) categories. A data set of 271 maltose-negative S. aureus isolates, from milk samples of 117 dairy herds, was examined using the disk diffusion method, between 2010 and 2017. This study also compared the susceptibility testing of 57 maltose-negative and 57 maltose-positive S. aureus isolated from 38 farms, from three provinces using minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC). The MIC results for the maltose-negative S. aureus isolates showed highest resistance to ampicillin (100%) and penicillin (47.4) and lowest resistance (1.8%) to azithromycin, ciprofloxacin and erythromycin. The maltose-negative S. aureus isolates showed overall significantly increased antibiotic resistance compared to the maltose-positive strains, as well as multidrug resistance. Producers and veterinarians should consider probability of cure of such organisms (seemingly non-chronic) when adapting management and treatment, preventing unnecessary culling. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Staphylococcus spp. in Animals: Resistance to Antimicrobials, Virulence and Genetic Lineages)

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13 pages, 355 KiB

Open AccessReview

Alternative Anti-Infective Treatments to Traditional Antibiotherapy against Staphylococcal Veterinary Pathogens

by Álvaro Mourenza, José A. Gil, Luis M. Mateos and Michal Letek

Antibiotics 2020, 9(10), 702; https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics9100702 - 15 Oct 2020

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3276

Abstract

The genus Staphylococcus encompasses many species that may be pathogenic to both humans and farm animals. These bacteria have the potential to acquire multiple resistant traits to the antimicrobials currently used in the veterinary or medical settings. These pathogens may commonly cause zoonoses, and the infections they cause are becoming difficult to treat due to antimicrobial resistance. Therefore, the development of novel alternative treatments to traditional antibiotherapy has gained interest in recent years. Here, we reviewed the most promising therapeutic strategies developed to control staphylococcal infections in the veterinary field to overcome antibiotic resistance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Staphylococcus spp. in Animals: Resistance to Antimicrobials, Virulence and Genetic Lineages)

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