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A special issue of Antioxidants (ISSN 2076-3921). This special issue belongs to the section "Natural and Synthetic Antioxidants".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 June 2020) | Viewed by 64536

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Special Issue Editors

Prof. Dr. Dorota Żyżelewicz

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Guest Editor

Institute of Food Technology and Analysis, Faculty of Biotechnology and Food Sciences, Lodz University of Technology, Lodz, Poland
Interests: cocoa beans; chocolate; edible flowers; functional food; roasting; phenolic compounds; methylxanthines; tocopherols; phytosterols; Maillard reaction products; antioxidant capacities; isolation, purification, and characterization of bioactive compounds; nutraceuticals; anti-nutritional compounds; food processing; encapsulation of bioactive compounds
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Dr. Joanna Oracz

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Guest Editor

Institute of Food Technology and Analysis, Faculty of Biotechnology and Food Sciences, Lodz University of Technology, Lodz, Poland
Interests: cocoa beans; acorns; edible flowers; roasting; phenolic compounds; methylxanthines; tocopherols; phytosterols; Maillard reaction products; melanoidins; antioxidant capacities; isolation and characterization of bioactive compounds; nutraceuticals; encapsulation of bioactive compounds
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Cocoa beans are the seeds of the tropical tree Theobroma cacao L. Because of the high concentration of bioactive compounds, including antioxidants (polyphenols, tocopherols), they are valued not only in the food industry but also in the pharmaceutical and cosmetic ones. In recent years, interest in these cocoa components has greatly increased because of their potentially beneficial effects on human health. Cocoa antioxidants can inhibit or delay cellular damage either by quenching free radicals or through chelation of transition metal ions, which reduces their capability to form reactive oxygen species. They also exhibit a wide range of physiological properties resulting in protection against diseases, including coronary heart diseases, cancer or neurodegenerative disorders. This Special Issue entitled “Antioxidants in Cocoa” will focus on the relevant current knowledge of cocoa antioxidants. Papers including research on any cocoa antioxidant (pure or in a formula—e.g., in food) in in vitro and in vivo studies are expected. Original research and review articles on the preventive and pro-health aspects of cocoa compounds with antioxidant properties for human and animal models in all basic, preclinical, clinical research are welcome.

Prof. Dr. Dorota Żyżelewicz
Dr. Joanna Oracz
Guest Editors

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Keywords

Cocoa
Antioxidants
Polyphenols
Tocopherols
In vitro and in vivo antioxidant activity
Mechanism of action cocoa antioxidants
Synergistic interactions between cocoa bioactive components
New cocoa antioxidant formulations

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Published Papers (11 papers)

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Editorial

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4 pages, 203 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Antioxidants in Cocoa

by Joanna Oracz and Dorota Żyżelewicz

Antioxidants 2020, 9(12), 1230; https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox9121230 - 4 Dec 2020

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 4528

Abstract

Cocoa beans are the seeds of the tropical tree Theobroma cacao L [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antioxidants in Cocoa)

Research

Jump to: Editorial

13 pages, 1626 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Insight of Polyphenol Oxidase Enzyme Inhibition and Total Polyphenol Recovery from Cocoa Beans

by Said Toro-Uribe, Jhair Godoy-Chivatá, Arley René Villamizar-Jaimes, María de Jesús Perea-Flores and Luis J. López-Giraldo

Antioxidants 2020, 9(6), 458; https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox9060458 - 27 May 2020

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 5760

Abstract

A full factorial design (ascorbic acid/l-cysteine inhibitors, temperature, and time as factors) study was conducted to enhance inhibition of polyphenol oxidase (PPO) activity without decreasing cocoa polyphenol concentrations. The data obtained were modelled through a new equation, represented by Γ, which correlates both high polyphenol content with reduced specific PPO activity. At optimized values (70 mM inhibitory solution at 96 °C for 6.4 min, Γ = 11.6), 93.3% PPO inhibition and total polyphenol of 94.9 mg GAE/g were obtained. In addition, microscopy images confirmed the cell morphological changes measured as the fractal dimension and explained the possible cell lysis and denaturation as a result of heat treatment and chemical inhibitors. Results also showed that PPO enzyme was most suitable (higher v_max/K_m ratio) for catechol, with a reduction in its affinity of 13.7-fold after the inhibition heat treatment. Overall, this work proposed a suitable and food-safe procedure for obtaining enriched polyphenol extract with low enzyme activity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antioxidants in Cocoa)

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18 pages, 2843 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Food-Safe Process for High Recovery of Flavonoids from Cocoa Beans: Antioxidant and HPLC-DAD-ESI-MS/MS Analysis

by Said Toro-Uribe, Elena Ibañez, Eric A. Decker, Arley René Villamizar-Jaimes and Luis Javier López-Giraldo

Antioxidants 2020, 9(5), 364; https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox9050364 - 27 Apr 2020

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 4879

Abstract

Considering the increasing interest in the incorporation of natural antioxidants in enriched foods, this work aimed to establish a food-grade and suitable procedure for the recovery of polyphenols from cocoa beans avoiding the degreasing process. The results showed that ultrasound for 30 min with particle sample size < 0.18 mm changed the microstructure of the cell, thus increasing the diffusion pathway of polyphenols and avoiding the degreasing process. The effect of temperature, pH, and concentration of ethanol and solute on the extraction of polyphenols was evaluated. Through a 2⁴ full factorial design, a maximum recovery of 122.34 ± 2.35 mg GAE/g, 88.87 ± 0.78 mg ECE/g, and 62.57 ± 3.37 mg ECE/g cocoa beans, for total concentration of polyphenols (TP), flavonoids (TF), and flavan-3-ols (TF3), respectively, was obtained. Based on mathematical models, the kinetics of the solid–liquid extraction process indicates a maximum equilibrium time of 45 min. Analysis by HPLC-DAD-ESI-MS/MS showed that our process allowed a high amount of methylxanthines (10.43 mg/g), catechins (7.92 mg/g), and procyanidins (34.0 mg/g) with a degree of polymerization >7, as well as high antioxidant activity determined by Oxygen Radical Absorbance Capacity (1149.85 ± 25.10 µMTrolox eq/g) and radical scavenging activity (DPPH^•, 120.60 ± 0.50 µM Trolox eq/g). Overall, the recovery method made possible increases of 59.7% and 12.8% in cocoa polyphenols content and extraction yield, respectively. This study showed an effective, suitable and cost-effective process for the extraction of bioactive compounds from cocoa beans without degreasing. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antioxidants in Cocoa)

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17 pages, 1544 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Study of Polyphenol Content and Antioxidant Properties of Various Mix of Chocolate Milk Masses with Different Protein Content

by Bogumiła Urbańska, Tomasz Szafrański, Hanna Kowalska and Jolanta Kowalska

Antioxidants 2020, 9(4), 299; https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox9040299 - 3 Apr 2020

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 4662

Abstract

The aim of the study was to analyze the antioxidant character of conched chocolate milk masses, taking into account different protein content in milk. For the study, cocoa liquor obtained from roasted and unroasted cocoa beans from different regions, as well as milk powder obtained by spray and cylindrical drying were used. The analysis that was carried out showed that the protein content of powdered milk products ranged from about 11.6% (w/w) to over 31% (w/w). Lower content of polyphenols and lower antioxidant activity were shown in the masses to which the addition of milk with higher protein content was applied. The analysis of antioxidant character of chocolate milk masses showed higher total polyphenols content in masses prepared from unroasted cocoa beans liquor. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antioxidants in Cocoa)

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13 pages, 3045 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Cocoa Flavonoids Reduce Inflammation and Oxidative Stress in a Myocardial Ischemia-Reperfusion Experimental Model

by Sajeela Ahmed, Naseer Ahmed, Alessio Rungatscher, Daniele Linardi, Bibi Kulsoom, Giulio Innamorati, Sultan Ayoub Meo, Mebratu Alebachew Gebrie, Romel Mani, Flavia Merigo, Flavia Guzzo and Giuseppe Faggian

Antioxidants 2020, 9(2), 167; https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox9020167 - 18 Feb 2020

Cited by 24 | Viewed by 5870

Abstract

Consumption of flavonoid-rich nutraceuticals has been associated with a reduction in coronary events. The present study analyzed the effects of cocoa flavonols on myocardial injury following acute coronary ischemia-reperfusion (I/R). A commercially available cocoa extract was identified by chromatographic mass spectrometry. Nineteen different phenolic compounds were identified and 250 mg of flavan-3-ols (procyanidin) were isolated in 1 g of extract. Oral administration of cocoa extract in incremental doses from 5 mg/kg up to 25 mg/kg daily for 15 days in Sprague Dawley rats (n = 30) produced a corresponding increase of blood serum polyphenols and become constant after 15 mg/kg. Consequently, the selected dose (15 mg/kg) of cocoa extract was administered orally daily for 15 days in a treated group (n = 10) and an untreated group served as control (n = 10). Both groups underwent surgical occlusion of the left anterior descending coronary artery and reperfusion. Cocoa extract treatment significantly reversed membrane peroxidation, nitro-oxidative stress, and decreased inflammatory markers (IL-6 and NF-kB) caused by myocardial I/R injury and enhanced activation of both p-Akt and p-Erk1/2. Daily administration of cocoa extract in rats is protective against myocardial I/R injury and attenuate nitro-oxidative stress, inflammation, and mitigates myocardial apoptosis. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antioxidants in Cocoa)

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12 pages, 1351 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Kinetics of Total Phenolic Content and Monomeric Flavan-3-ols during the Roasting Process of Criollo Cocoa

by Editha Fernández-Romero, Segundo G. Chavez-Quintana, Raúl Siche, Efraín M. Castro-Alayo and Fiorella P. Cardenas-Toro

Antioxidants 2020, 9(2), 146; https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox9020146 - 9 Feb 2020

Cited by 27 | Viewed by 4108

Abstract

Cocoa beans are the main raw material for the manufacture of chocolate and are currently gaining great importance due to their antioxidant potential attributed to the total phenolic content (TPC) and the monomeric flavan-3-ols (epicatechin and catechin). The objective of this study was to determine the degradation kinetics parameters of TPC, epicatechin, and catechin during the roasting process of Criollo cocoa for 10, 20, 30, 40, and 50 min at 90, 110, 130, 150, 170, 190, and 200 °C. The results showed a lower degradation of TPC (10.98 ± 6.04%) and epicatechin (8.05 ± 3.01%) at 130 °C and 10 min of roasting, while a total degradation of epicatechin and a 92.29 ± 0.06% degradation of TPC was obtained at 200 °C and 50 min. Reaction rate constant (

k

) and activation energy (

E_{a}

) were 0.02–0.10 min⁻¹ and 24.03 J/mol for TPC and 0.02–0.13 min⁻¹ and 22.51 J/mol for epicatechin, respectively. Degradation kinetics of TPC and epicatechin showed first-order reactions, while the catechin showed patterns of formation and degradation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antioxidants in Cocoa)

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14 pages, 2569 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Antioxidant Effect of Cocoa By-Product and Cherry Polyphenol Extracts: A Comparative Study

by Francesca Felice, Angela Fabiano, Marinella De Leo, Anna Maria Piras, Denise Beconcini, Maria Michela Cesare, Alessandra Braca, Ylenia Zambito and Rossella Di Stefano

Antioxidants 2020, 9(2), 132; https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox9020132 - 3 Feb 2020

Cited by 25 | Viewed by 4957

Abstract

Background: Recent studies have highlighted the importance of cherry and cocoa extracts consumption to protect cells from oxidative stress, paying particular attention to cocoa by-products. This study aims to investigate the protective effect of cocoa husk extract (CHE) and cherry extracts (CE) against ROS-induced oxidative stress in Human Umbilical Vein Endothelial Cells (HUVECs). Methods: CE and CHE had antioxidant activity characterized by total polyphenols content (TPC). HUVECs were treated for 2 h and 24 h with increasing TPC concentrations of CE and CHE (5-10-25-50-100 µg Gallic Acid Equivalent (GAE)/mL) and then with H₂O₂ for 1 h. Cell viability and ROS production were evaluated. CE and CHE polyphenols permeability on excised rat intestine were also studied. Results: CE and CHE showed a similar antioxidant activity (2.5 ± 0.01 mmol Fe²⁺/100 g FW (fresh weight) and 2.19 ± 0.09 mmol Fe²⁺/100 g FW, respectively, p > 0.05) whereas CHE had a higher TPC (7105.0 ± 96.9 mg GAE/100 g FW) than CE (402.5 ± 8.4 mg GAE/100 g), p < 0.05. The in vitro viability assay showed that both extracts were non-cytotoxic. CHE resulted in protection against ROS at lower concentrations than CE. CHE showed a 2-fold higher apparent permeability compared to CE. Conclusions: CHE represents a high-value antioxidant source, which is interesting for the food and pharmaceutical industries. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antioxidants in Cocoa)

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16 pages, 2947 KiB

Open AccessArticle

(–)-Epicatechin Reduces the Blood Pressure of Young Borderline Hypertensive Rats During the Post-Treatment Period

by Michal Kluknavsky, Peter Balis, Martin Skratek, Jan Manka and Iveta Bernatova

Antioxidants 2020, 9(2), 96; https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox9020096 - 23 Jan 2020

Cited by 23 | Viewed by 3751

Abstract

This study investigated the effects of (–)-epicatechin (Epi) in young male borderline hypertensive rats (BHR) during two weeks of treatment (Epi group, 100 mg/kg/day p.o.) and two weeks post treatment (PE group). Epi reduced blood pressure (BP), which persisted for two weeks post treatment. This was associated with delayed reduction of anxiety-like behaviour. Epi significantly increased nitric oxide synthase (NOS) activities in the aorta and left heart ventricle (LHV) vs. the age-matched controls without affecting the brainstem and frontal neocortex. Furthermore, Epi significantly reduced the superoxide production in the aorta and relative content of iron-containing compounds in blood. Two weeks post treatment, the NOS activities and superoxide productions in the heart and aorta did not differ from the age-matched controls. The gene expressions of the NOSs (nNOS, iNOS, eNOS), nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2), and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ (PPAR-γ) remained unaltered in the aorta and LHV of the Epi and PE groups. In conclusion, while Epi-induced a decrease of the rats’ BP persisted for two weeks post treatment, continuous Epi treatments seem to be necessary for maintaining elevated NO production as well as redox balance in the heart and aorta without changes in the NOSs, Nrf2, and PPAR-γ gene expressions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antioxidants in Cocoa)

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20 pages, 3780 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Flavanol Polymerization Is a Superior Predictor of α-Glucosidase Inhibitory Activity Compared to Flavanol or Total Polyphenol Concentrations in Cocoas Prepared by Variations in Controlled Fermentation and Roasting of the Same Raw Cocoa Beans

by Kathryn C. Racine, Brian D. Wiersema, Laura E. Griffin, Lauren A. Essenmacher, Andrew H. Lee, Helene Hopfer, Joshua D. Lambert, Amanda C. Stewart and Andrew P. Neilson

Antioxidants 2019, 8(12), 635; https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox8120635 - 11 Dec 2019

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 7248

Abstract

Raw cocoa beans were processed to produce cocoa powders with different combinations of fermentation (unfermented, cool, or hot) and roasting (not roasted, cool, or hot). Cocoa powder extracts were characterized and assessed for α-glucosidase inhibitory activity in vitro. Cocoa processing (fermentation/roasting) contributed to significant losses of native flavanols. All of the treatments dose-dependently inhibited α-glucosidase activity, with cool fermented/cool roasted powder exhibiting the greatest potency (IC₅₀: 68.09 µg/mL), when compared to acarbose (IC₅₀: 133.22 µg/mL). A strong negative correlation was observed between flavanol mDP and IC₅₀, suggesting flavanol polymerization as a marker of enhanced α-glucosidase inhibition in cocoa. Our data demonstrate that cocoa powders are potent inhibitors of α-glucosidase. Significant reductions in the total polyphenol and flavanol concentrations induced by processing do not necessarily dictate a reduced capacity for α-glucosidase inhibition, but rather these steps can enhance cocoa bioactivity. Non-traditional compositional markers may be better predictors of enzyme inhibitory activity than cocoa native flavanols. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antioxidants in Cocoa)

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16 pages, 2731 KiB

Open AccessArticle

In Vitro Antioxidant Activity and FTIR Characterization of High-Molecular Weight Melanoidin Fractions from Different Types of Cocoa Beans

by Joanna Oracz and Dorota Zyzelewicz

Antioxidants 2019, 8(11), 560; https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox8110560 - 15 Nov 2019

Cited by 60 | Viewed by 6068

Abstract

Melanoidins from real foods and model systems have received considerable interest due to potential health benefits. However, due to the complexity of these compounds, to date, the exact structure of melanoidins and mechanism involved in their biological activity has not been fully elucidated. Thus, the aim of this study was to investigate the total phenolic content, antioxidant properties, and structural characteristics of high-molecular weight (HMW) melanoidin fractions isolated by dialysis (>12.4 kDa) from raw and roasted cocoa beans of Criollo, Forastero, and Trinitario beans cultivated in various area. In vitro antioxidant properties of all studied HMW cocoa fractions were evaluated by four different assays, namely free radical scavenging activity against DPPH^• and ABTS^•+ radicals, ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP), and metal-chelating ability. Additionally, the structure–activity relationship of isolated HMW melanoidin fractions were analyzed using attenuated total reflectance Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR). The results show that roasting at a temperature of 150 °C and a relative air humidity of 0.3% effectively enhances the total phenolics content and the antioxidant potential of almost all HMW cocoa melanoidin fractions. The ATR-FTIR analysis revealed that the various mechanisms of action of HMW melanoidins isolates of different types of cocoa beans related to their structural diversity. Consequently, the results clearly demonstrated that HMW cocoa fractions isolated from cocoa beans (especially those of Criollo variety) roasted at higher temperatures with the lower relative humidity of air possess high antioxidant properties in vitro. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antioxidants in Cocoa)

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13 pages, 1587 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comparison of the Total Polyphenol Content and Antioxidant Activity of Chocolate Obtained from Roasted and Unroasted Cocoa Beans from Different Regions of the World

by Bogumiła Urbańska and Jolanta Kowalska

Antioxidants 2019, 8(8), 283; https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox8080283 - 6 Aug 2019

Cited by 60 | Viewed by 10988

Abstract

The polyphenol content of cocoa beans and the products derived from them, depend on the regions in which they are grown and the processes to which they are subjected, especially temperature. The aim of the study was to compare the total content of polyphenols and antioxidant activity of chocolates obtained from roasted and unroasted cocoa beans. The chocolates produced from each of the six types of unroasted beans and each of the five types of roasted beans were investigated. The seeds came from Ghana, Venezuela, the Dominican Republic, Colombia and Ecuador. The highest total polyphenol content was determined in cocoa beans originating from Colombia and in the chocolates obtained from them. A higher content of total polyphenols was found in unroasted cocoa beans, which indicates the influence this process had on the studied size. The ability to scavenge free DPPH radicals was at a high level in both the beans and the chocolates produced from them, irrespective of the region where the raw material was grown. A positive correlation between the total polyphenol content and the ability to scavenge free radicals was found. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antioxidants in Cocoa)

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