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Atmosphere
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Air Pollution Exposure and Health Impact Assessment
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Air Pollution Exposure and Health Impact Assessment

A special issue of Atmosphere (ISSN 2073-4433). This special issue belongs to the section "Air Quality and Health".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (15 December 2023) | Viewed by 21943

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Changqing Lin

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Guest Editor
Division of Environment and Sustainability, Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Hong Kong, China
Interests: remote sensing; aerosols; air pollutions; public health
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Christos Argyropoulos

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
School of Medicine, European University Cyprus, Egkomi 2404, Cyprus
Interests: health risk assessment; occupational health & safety; public health; air pollution; process safety
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Zoi Dorothea Pana

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
School of Medicine, European University of Cyprus, Nicosia 2404, Cyprus
Interests: epidemiology; infection control and prevention; health technology assessment
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

This Special Issue aims to provide recent advances in the field of “Air Pollution Exposure and Health Impact Assessment”. Air pollution exposure, including ambient air pollution and household air pollution, has been associated with several adverse health effects, such as heart diseases, stroke, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, pneumonia and lung cancer. The path from exposure to health impact follows several steps: exposure concentration → internal dose → sub-clinical effects → early effects → adverse effects. Different types of studies have been conducted in an effort to investigate the relationship between exposure and health impact. For example, epidemiological studies have investigated the associations between exposure and health effects. The development of mathematical models, sampling technologies, as well as analysis methods and remote sensing are used to obtain exposure estimation. Individual mobile devices are used to acquire personal activity and location data. Additionally, biomarker data, including biomarkers of exposure, effect, and susceptibility, are collected and analyzed to further elucidate the relationship between exposure and disease. Recently, the concept of the exposome has been raised in exposure science; it can be defined as the measure of all the exposures of an individual in their lifetime, and how those exposures relate to health. Exposomics (the study of the exposome) as well as  genomics, metabonomics, lipidomics, transcriptomics and proteomics, are being developed to better understand exposure–disease causation, as well as disease progress and mechanisms. The main goal of the study of exposure and health impact is to prevent disease through effective mitigation measures, such as the usage of clean energy, air pollutant emission regulation, and adequate transport networks of rapid transit combined with walking and cycling. This Special Issue aims to showcase the most scientific and technological advances in exposure estimation through geographic information technologies, biomonitoring for internal exposure and/or effect, exposure model development, causation identification between exposure and health impact, and mitigation measures for exposure reduction.

Original results from field and laboratory measurements, observational studies, models and review papers related to Air Pollution Exposure and Health Impact Assessment are all welcome contributions.

Dr. Changqing Lin
Dr. Christos Argyropoulos
Dr. Zoi Dorothea Pana
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

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Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Atmosphere is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2400 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • air pollutant
  • biomarker
  • exposome
  • remote sensing
  • susceptibility
  • model development
  • sampling and analysis method

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Published Papers (10 papers)

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Research

12 pages, 4115 KiB  
Article
The Relationship between PM2.5 and Health Vulnerability in Argentina in 2010
by Manuela Bullo, Gabriela Lakkis, Martin Pustilnik, Juan Ignacio Bonfiglio, Ricardo Di Pasquale, Luciana Marisol Gonzalez, Gabriela Gonzalez-Aleman, Maria Cristina Lamas, Agustin Salvia, Martín Langsam, Tomás Olego, Valentín Starosta and Santiago Perez-Lloret
Atmosphere 2023, 14(11), 1662; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos14111662 - 8 Nov 2023
Viewed by 1486
Abstract
This study aimed to further explore the concept of health vulnerability in Argentina, including environmental pollution in 2010. To this end, we developed a geo-referenced database of PM2.5 concentrations and emissions data from the national emissions inventory to analyze possible correlations with the [...] Read more.
This study aimed to further explore the concept of health vulnerability in Argentina, including environmental pollution in 2010. To this end, we developed a geo-referenced database of PM2.5 concentrations and emissions data from the national emissions inventory to analyze possible correlations with the demographic, activity, education, and health data from the 2010 national census. In addition, to provide a more complete picture of health vulnerability in Argentina, an extended index (SVI + PM2.5) was constructed and mapped, including PM concentration. We obtained data for annual PM2.5 values emissions and air concentrations in Argentina from public sources (GEEA-AEIv3.0M for emissions and the Atmospheric Composition Analysis Group V5.GL.03 dataset for surface PM2.5). We evaluated health vulnerability using the “Sanitary Vulnerability Index” (SVI). PM2.5 emissions are concentrated in urban and intensive agricultural areas of Argentina. PM2.5 air concentrations were acceptable (≤10 µg/m3) in only 15% of the Argentinean territory. The newly developed SVI + PM2.5 index showed that exposure to particulate material significantly increases the vulnerability shown by SVI in almost all census blocks. These results indicate that the new SVI + PM2.5 index might help identify populations that are at risk because of social issues or air pollution. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Air Pollution Exposure and Health Impact Assessment)
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15 pages, 4114 KiB  
Article
The Role of Industrial Structure Upgrading in Moderating the Impact of Environmental Regulation on Air Pollution: Evidence from China
by Yu Liu, Chun-Ni Xie, Zi-Shuang Wang, Noure-El Houda Rebai and Xiao-Min Lai
Atmosphere 2023, 14(10), 1537; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos14101537 - 8 Oct 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1278
Abstract
Air pollution is an important factor affecting human health and daily life. The Chinese government is making vigorous efforts to control air pollution. The upgrading of the industrial structure is a problem-solving tool in the environment and economic growth cases. This paper aims [...] Read more.
Air pollution is an important factor affecting human health and daily life. The Chinese government is making vigorous efforts to control air pollution. The upgrading of the industrial structure is a problem-solving tool in the environment and economic growth cases. This paper aims to explore the relationships among environmental regulation, the upgrading of the industrial structure and air pollution. The PVAR (Panel Vector Auto Regression) model and moderating effect model are used to conduct empirical analysis based on panel data of 30 provinces in China from 2004 to 2020. The analysis of the results provides the following findings. Firstly, environmental regulations can significantly reduce emissions, but the deterioration of air quality does not have a significant impact on the improvement of environmental regulations. Secondly, industrial structure upgrading can reduce air pollution, but the worsening of the air quality will hinder the upgrading of industrial structures. Thirdly, environmental regulation can promote industrial structure upgrading. Lastly, industrial structure upgrading is a moderating variable and can positively moderate the impact of environmental regulations on air pollution. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Air Pollution Exposure and Health Impact Assessment)
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23 pages, 1848 KiB  
Article
Extending Multi-Pathway Human Health Risk Assessment from Regional to Country-Wide—A Case Study on Kuwait
by Mohammad Munshed, Jesse Van Griensven Thé, Roydon Fraser, Bryan Matthews and Ashraf Ramadan
Atmosphere 2023, 14(8), 1247; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos14081247 - 5 Aug 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2223
Abstract
Air pollution has emerged as a pressing global issue in recent decades. While criteria pollutants and greenhouse gases contribute to the problem, this article explicitly addresses hazardous air pollutants (HAPs). This work estimates the country-wide cumulative human health impacts from exposure to HAPs. [...] Read more.
Air pollution has emerged as a pressing global issue in recent decades. While criteria pollutants and greenhouse gases contribute to the problem, this article explicitly addresses hazardous air pollutants (HAPs). This work estimates the country-wide cumulative human health impacts from exposure to HAPs. Kuwait is used as the case study due to data availability and non-fragmentation of data. At present, the evaluation of multi-pathway human health risks arising from exposure to HAPs is incomplete, as indirect pathways have not been considered. Furthermore, only a few HAPs, such as benzene, have established ambient air quality standards specifically intended to safeguard human health, leaving many HAPs unregulated. This study considers several pathways (both direct and indirect) and various environmental media (air, water, plants, soil, and animal tissue). The findings indicate that cumulative health risks in the coastal air quality zone are within acceptable limits but are notably higher when compared to the other air quality zones. For cancer risks, only the Ahmadi Hospital, with a cancer risk of 1.09 × 10−5 for the resident adult exposure scenario, slightly exceeds the acceptable risk level of 1 × 10−5. The proposed methodology integrates the results from a country-wide emissions inventory composed of different air quality zones, air dispersion and deposition modeling, multi-pathway transport-and-fate analysis, exposure quantification, and health risk and hazard characterization. It also extends and adapts EPA methodologies initially designed for hazardous waste combustion facilities to additional emission sources and provides a case study for a region seldom subjected to such human health risk assessments. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Air Pollution Exposure and Health Impact Assessment)
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17 pages, 1768 KiB  
Article
In Vitro Bioaccessibility and Health Risk of Heavy Metals from PM2.5/PM10 in Arid Areas—Hotan City, China
by Bowen Liu, Yuanyu Zhang, Dilinuer Talifu, Xiang Ding, Xinming Wang, Abulikemu Abulizi, Qilong Zhao, Xiaohui Zhang and Runqi Zhang
Atmosphere 2023, 14(7), 1066; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos14071066 - 24 Jun 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1878
Abstract
The impact of heavy metals in particulates plays an assignable role in human health—especially in the northwest region of China, which is affected by severe dust storms—and the bioaccessibility and health risks of heavy metals in particulate matter have not yet been quantified [...] Read more.
The impact of heavy metals in particulates plays an assignable role in human health—especially in the northwest region of China, which is affected by severe dust storms—and the bioaccessibility and health risks of heavy metals in particulate matter have not yet been quantified and evaluated. This study used Gamble’s solution and PBET (physiologically based extraction test) experiments to simulate the human respiratory and digestive systems, and analyzed the concentrations and bioaccessibility of Pb, Mn, Ni, Cd and As in PM2.5 and PM10 samples in the urban area of Hotan City during summer (July) and winter (January). The result shows that Mn and Pb are the most abundant elements in five metals. The bioaccessibility of Mn in gastric fluid was the highest in both summer (PM2.5: 64.1%, PM10: 52.0%) and winter (PM2.5: 88.0%, PM10: 85.1%). Meanwhile, in the respiratory system, the highest bioaccessibility of PM2.5 and PM10 in summer was Ni (53.3%), and Pb (47.9%), respectively. Although the concentration of Cd is low in winter, its bioaccessibility in lung fluid was the highest (PM2.5: 74.7%, PM10: 62.3%). The USEPA standard model and Monte Carlo simulation results show that the heavy metals in PM2.5 and PM10 would give rise to non-carcinogenic risk for both adults and children through the respiratory system in summer but had little risk in winter. However, the metal may have non-carcinogenic risk to children through intake. In addition, there is a cancer risk to adults through the respiratory system in winter (PM2.5: CR = 1.80 × 10−6, PM10: CR = 2.82 × 10−6), while there is a carcinogenic risk through the digestive system regardless of season and age. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Air Pollution Exposure and Health Impact Assessment)
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23 pages, 2141 KiB  
Article
Air Pollutants and Their Impact on Chronic Diseases—A Retrospective Study in Bucharest, Romania
by Beatrice Mahler, Dragoș Băiceanu, Traian Constantin Panciu, Radu Marian Florea, Ana Luiza Iorga, Marcin Gnat, Cornelia Florina German, Simona Pârvu, Dorel Paraschiv, Daniela Manea, Mihaela Mihai, Elmira Ibraim, Bogdan Timar and Florin Dumitru Mihălțan
Atmosphere 2023, 14(5), 867; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos14050867 - 12 May 2023
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2898
Abstract
Air pollution is a serious problem in Romania, with the country ranking 13th among the most polluted countries in Europe in the 2021 World Air Quality Report. Despite the recognized impact of pollutants on health, there has been a lack of large-scale studies [...] Read more.
Air pollution is a serious problem in Romania, with the country ranking 13th among the most polluted countries in Europe in the 2021 World Air Quality Report. Despite the recognized impact of pollutants on health, there has been a lack of large-scale studies conducted in Romania. This study investigated the impact of air pollutants on patients with chronic respiratory, cardiovascular, cerebrovascular, or metabolic diseases in Bucharest and its metropolitan area from 20 August 2018 to 1 June 2022. The daily limit values for particulate matter PM10 and PM2.5 were exceeded every month, especially during the cold season, with a decrease during the COVID-19 pandemic restrictions. A significant statistical correlation was found between the monthly average values of PM2.5 and PM10 and hospitalizations for respiratory and cardiovascular diseases. A 10 µg/m3 increase in monthly average values resulted in a 40–60% increase in admissions for each type of pathology, translating to more than 2000 admissions for each pathology for the study period. This study highlights the urgent need for national and local measures to ensure a cleaner environment and enhance public health in Romania according to international regulations. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Air Pollution Exposure and Health Impact Assessment)
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20 pages, 2827 KiB  
Article
Emissions of PAHs, Nitro-PAHs and Quinones (Oxy-PAHs) Associated to PM1.0 and PM2.5 Emitted by a Diesel Engine Fueled with Diesel-Biodiesel-Ethanol Blends
by Joilson Nascimento Paim, Aldenor Gomes Santos, Rennan G. O. Araujo, Madson Moreira Nascimento, Jailson Bittencourt De Andrade and Lilian Lefol Nani Guarieiro
Atmosphere 2023, 14(4), 656; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos14040656 - 31 Mar 2023
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2398
Abstract
Emissions of PAH, nitro-PAHs, and oxy-PAHs from a diesel engine fueled with diesel-biodiesel-ethanol blends need to be controlled and reduced, as they are unregulated emissions harmful to the environment and human health. The objective of this work was to investigate the effect of [...] Read more.
Emissions of PAH, nitro-PAHs, and oxy-PAHs from a diesel engine fueled with diesel-biodiesel-ethanol blends need to be controlled and reduced, as they are unregulated emissions harmful to the environment and human health. The objective of this work was to investigate the effect of ethanol concentration on diesel engine emissions when fueled with diesel–biodiesel–ethanol blends. Ethanol was added with biodiesel–diesel blends. Diesel B7 and two ternary blends, B7E3 and B7E10, with 3% and 10% ethanol, were tested and studied in a diesel engine to determine engine performance characteristics and particulate matter emissions and to quantify polycyclic aromatic compounds (PACs) associated with PM1.0 and PM2.5. Under the same engine conditions, 18 PAHs, 27 nitro-PAHs, and 6 quinones (oxy-PAHs) were determined by GC–MS in real samples obtained from the engine. The mean concentrations of PACs found in the B7, B7E3, and B7E10 blends for PM1.0 ranged from 0.1 µg m−3 (coronene) to 118.1 µg m−3 (2-nitrofluorene). The concentrations for PM2.5 ranged from 0.1 µg m−3 (acenaphthylene) to 99.7 µg m−3 (2-nitrofluorene). Potent mutagens benzanthrone (BA) and 3-nitrobenzanthrone (3-NBA) were found at concentrations ranging from 0.10 µg m−3 to 1.9 µg m−3 and 0.3 µg m−3 to 1.6 µg m−3, respectively. Low molecular weight (LMW) PAHs were mainly PACs bounded to the PM1.0 and PM2.5 particles emitted by B7E10. Flow properties were improved by adding 3% and 10% ethanol to biodiesel. B7E3 and B7E10 blends presented low fuel consumption and a reduction in the emission factor (EF) by the engine. B7E10 blending showed a smaller total concentration of ∑PAH (26.8 µg m−3), ∑nitro-PAH (85.4 µg m−3), and ∑oxy-PAH (6.0 µg m−3) associated with PM2.5 particles compared PM1.0. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Air Pollution Exposure and Health Impact Assessment)
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9 pages, 236 KiB  
Article
Impact of Air Pollution on Residents’ Health in China: Moderating Effect Analysis Based on a Hierarchical Linear Model
by Yu Liu, Zi-Shuang Wang and Xin-Ge Fang
Atmosphere 2023, 14(2), 334; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos14020334 - 7 Feb 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1696
Abstract
Background: Air pollution is an important factor affecting residents’ health. Methods: Based on the health data of 9959 residents from 28 provinces in China in the 2017 Chinese General Social Survey (CGSS), this paper uses a hierarchical linear model (HLM) to [...] Read more.
Background: Air pollution is an important factor affecting residents’ health. Methods: Based on the health data of 9959 residents from 28 provinces in China in the 2017 Chinese General Social Survey (CGSS), this paper uses a hierarchical linear model (HLM) to scientifically analyze the impact of air pollution on residents’ health and to explore the moderating role of air pollution in various factors influencing residents’ health. Results: Air pollution has significant negative effects on residents’ health (coef. −0.103, p < 0.01), while frequency of exercise (coef. 0.070, p < 0.01), education level (coef. 0.012, p < 0.1) and income level (coef. 0.383, p < 0.01) have positive effects on residents’ health. Air pollution has a negative moderating effect on the positive impact of exercise frequency on residents’ health (coef. −0.015, p = 0.004). Conclusions: Air pollution causes serious damage to residents’ health and it is necessary to control air pollution. Increasing residents’ income, education level and exercise frequency can help improve residents’ health level. Air pollution significantly reduce the positive impact of exercise frequency on residents’ health. In order to effectively improve their own health, it is a better choice for residents to exercise when the air quality is good. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Air Pollution Exposure and Health Impact Assessment)
11 pages, 519 KiB  
Article
The Association between Household Air Pollution and Blood Pressure in Obuasi Municipality, Ghana
by Theresa Tawiah, Matthew Shupler, Stephaney Gyaase, Rachel Anderson de Cuevas, Jason Saah, Emily Nix, Mieks Twumasi, Reginald Quansah, Elisa Puzzolo, Daniel Pope and Kwaku Poku Asante
Atmosphere 2022, 13(12), 2033; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos13122033 - 3 Dec 2022
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2387
Abstract
Emerging evidence suggests a possible link between exposure to household air pollution (HAP) from a reliance on polluting solid fuels (SFs) (e.g., wood and charcoal) for cooking and high blood pressure. As part of the CLEAN-Air(Africa) project, we measured the blood pressure among [...] Read more.
Emerging evidence suggests a possible link between exposure to household air pollution (HAP) from a reliance on polluting solid fuels (SFs) (e.g., wood and charcoal) for cooking and high blood pressure. As part of the CLEAN-Air(Africa) project, we measured the blood pressure among 350 cooks in Obuasi Municipality, Ghana after 24 h exposure to particulate matter (PM2.5) from the combustion of either solid fuels (n = 35) or liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) (n = 35). Multinomial regression models were used to describe the relationship between different stages of blood pressure (mmHg) and the respondents’ main fuel type used, adjusting for key covariates. A linear regression model was used to describe the relationship between personal exposure to PM2.5 and the respondent’s systolic as well as diastolic blood pressure, adjusting for key covariates. Blood pressure was higher in cooks using SFs for cooking than in those using LPG. A significant exposure–response relationship was not observed between increasing exposure to PM2.5 and increasing blood pressure (systolic: β = −2.42, 95% CI: −8.65, 3.80, p-value = 0.438, and diastolic: β = −0.32, 95% CI: −5.09; 4.45, p-value = 0.893). Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Air Pollution Exposure and Health Impact Assessment)
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15 pages, 10122 KiB  
Article
Using a Pollution-to-Risk Method to Evaluate the Impact of a Cold Front: A Case Study in a Downstream Region in Southeastern China
by Changqing Lin and Wengwan Zhang
Atmosphere 2022, 13(12), 1944; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos13121944 - 22 Nov 2022
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1494
Abstract
Cold fronts frequently intrude China in winter, causing air pollution episodes in downwind regions. Fine particulate matter (PM2.5) has been used as a major proxy of air pollution to examine the impacts of cold fronts. Compared to particles, gaseous pollutants can [...] Read more.
Cold fronts frequently intrude China in winter, causing air pollution episodes in downwind regions. Fine particulate matter (PM2.5) has been used as a major proxy of air pollution to examine the impacts of cold fronts. Compared to particles, gaseous pollutants can cause comparable or even higher levels of short-term health risks. In this study, a pollution-to-risk model was used to systematically evaluate the impacts of cold fronts on the combined health risks of air pollution mixtures, including PM2.5, nitrogen dioxide (NO2), ozone (O3), and sulfur dioxide (SO2). Dominant pollutants that caused significant mortality risks during a cold frontal passage in December 2019 over Fuzhou, a downwind city in southeastern China, were then examined. Under northerly frontal airflows, a pollution belt propagated southwards. In Fuzhou, two pollution peaks existed during the cold frontal passage. At the first peak, convergence and stagnant air in the frontal zone rapidly accumulated local air pollutants. The dominant pollutants that caused the mortality risk were identified as NO2 and PM2.5, both of which contributed 45% to the total risk. At the second peak, advection transported a significant amount of secondary pollutants from the upwind regions. Although PM2.5 was the dominant pollutant at this peak, gaseous pollutants still accounted for 34% of the total risk. Our risk analyses underscore the significant health impacts of gaseous pollutants during cold frontal passages in winter. The results generated from this study will help guide environmental policy makers in forming and improving air pollution control strategies during pollution episodes. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Air Pollution Exposure and Health Impact Assessment)
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12 pages, 796 KiB  
Article
The Different Impact of PM2.5 on Atherogenesis in Overseas vs. Native Chinese in the CATHAY Study
by Kam-Sang Woo, Shu-Wing Chan, Timothy C. Y. Kwok, Yue-Hui Yin, Ping Chook, Chang-Qing Lin and David S. Celermajer
Atmosphere 2022, 13(8), 1236; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos13081236 - 3 Aug 2022
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2060
Abstract
Air pollution (PM2.5) has been associated with cardiovascular disease (CVD) globally and with early atherosclerosis surrogate markers in modernized China. A sizeable number of Chinese have migrated overseas, with an increase in their vulnerability to CVD. To evaluate the impact of PM2.5 air [...] Read more.
Air pollution (PM2.5) has been associated with cardiovascular disease (CVD) globally and with early atherosclerosis surrogate markers in modernized China. A sizeable number of Chinese have migrated overseas, with an increase in their vulnerability to CVD. To evaluate the impact of PM2.5 air pollution on atherogenesis in native vs. overseas Chinese, we recruited 756 asymptomatic native Chinese and 507 age- and gender-matched overseas Chinese from Sydney and San Francisco. Their cardiovascular profiles were evaluated. PM2.5 was derived from remote sensing technology; atherosclerosis surrogate markers, flow-mediated dilation (FMD) and carotid intima-media thickness (IMT) were measured by ultrasound. The native Chinese had a higher proportion of smokers as well as higher blood pressure, glucose, metabolic syndrome and PM2.5 exposure (p < 0.001), but lower lipids and folate than the overseas Chinese (p < 0.0001). Carotid IMT was lower in the native Chinese (p < 0.0001), but the other vascular parameters were similar. A multivariate regression revealed that FMD in the native Chinese was related to the male gender, age and location; in the overseas Chinese, it was related to age, but not to PM2.5. Carotid IMT in the native Chinese was related to PM2.5, independent of atherosclerotic risk factors and location (R2 = 0.384, F = 34.5, p < 0.0001) whereas in the overseas Chinese, IMT was related to the male gender and age, but not to PM2.5 or overseas location (R2 = 0.282, F = 19.7, p < 0.0001). PM2.5 had a greater impact on atherogenesis in the native Chinese, independent of traditional risk factors, with implications for preventive strategies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Air Pollution Exposure and Health Impact Assessment)
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