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Buildings for the 21st Century
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Buildings for the 21st Century

A special issue of Buildings (ISSN 2075-5309). This special issue belongs to the section "Building Energy, Physics, Environment, and Systems".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 20 June 2025 | Viewed by 9630

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Wahidul K. Biswas

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Sustainable Engineering Group, School of Civil and Mechanical Engineering, Curtin University, Bentley, WA 6102, Australia
Interests: sustainable engineering; life cycle assessment; waste management
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Prof. Dr. Chithirai Pon Selvan

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
School of Science and Engineering, Curtin University Dubai, Dubai 345031, United Arab Emirates
Interests: manufacturing practices; machine design; optimization techniques; engineering sustainable development; renewable energy

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Currently, we are consuming more than 1.7 times the Earth's total capacity to provide renewable and non-renewable resources to humanity (GFN, 2023). If no technological and policy changes are introduced, we will need almost three planets by 2050 to meet the demand of 9.6 billion people (GFN, 2023). Building construction industries are resource-intensive as they consume 25% of virgin wood and 40% of non-renewable resources, including raw stone, gravel, and sand, globally each year for cement, aggregates, and pavement production (Kedir, 2020). These non-renewable resources will become scarce with the rapid growth of population and the economy. Buildings alone are responsible for 39% of global energy-related greenhouse gas emissions, of which, 28% is operational energy produced from the combustion of fossil fuels, and the remaining 11% is produced by the manufacturing of materials and construction activities (WGBC, 2023). Without implementing further environmental policy, the energy used in buildings could increase by 46–73% compared to its 2019 level by 2050; this will be driven by population growth, greater diffusion, and the utilization of energy-intensive devices, and enhanced living standards in developing countries (Camarasa et al. 2022). The United Nations estimates that 68% of the world's population will live in urban areas by 2050 (Peña et al. 2021). This will extend the impact of urban heat islands as structures such as buildings, roads, and other infrastructure will absorb and re-emit the sun’s heat more than forests and water bodies (USEPA, 2022).  

This Special Issue (SI) aims to publish a wide range of articles that address topics including innovative building design, energy efficiency/efficient end-use appliances, resource conservation, alternative construction materials, innovative or smart building management, sustainability assessment tools, green energy, and the urban micro-climate; these contributions will address the sustainability challenges of building industries in the 21st century.  

The top five papers of the International Conference on Innovation, Sustainability and Applied Sciences (ICISAS 2025) at Curtin University, Dubai, that are relevant to at least one of the following topics will obtain a full fee waiver for publishing in this Special Issue. The next five papers will be offered a 50% discount. MDPI, the publisher of this Special Issue, will review the papers before assigning the discounts.

This Special Issue aims to address the following topics:

  • Environmental impacts of building materials
  • Building energy and environments
  • Life cycle assessment and green buildings
  • Environmentally friendly construction practices
  • Prefabricated/modular buildings
  • Passive design
  • Building-integrated photovoltaics
  • Net-zero energy buildings (NZEBS)
  • A new generation of stronger, lighter and more sustainable building materials
  • Application of LCA/EPD in sustainable construction
  • Intelligent Building Management System for reducing UHI
  • Modification of building envelopes for reducing UHI
  • Demand-side management and UHI
  • Life-cycle sustainability assessment

References

Camarasa, C., Mata, É., Navarro, J.P.J. et al. (2022). A global comparison of building decarbonization scenarios by 2050 towards 1.5–2 °C targets. Nat Commun 13, 3077.

GFN (Global Footprint Network) (2023). Ecological Footprints. https://www.footprintnetwork.org/our-work/ecological-footprint/.

Kedir, F., Hall, D. (2020). Resource efficiency in industrialized housing construction – A systematic review of current performance and future opportunities. Journal of Cleaner Production. 125443.

Peña, M., Vahdatikhaki, F., Santos, J., Hammad, A., Dorée, A. (2021). How to bring UHI to the urban planning table? A data-driven modeling approach. Sustainable Cities and Society. 71, 102948.

USEPA (2022). Learn About Heat Islands. https://www.epa.gov/heatislands/learn-about-heat-islands.

WGBC (World Green Building Council) (2023). Achieving Net Zero.  https://worldgbc.org/advancing-net-zero/embodied-carbon/#:~:text=Buildings%20are%20currently%20responsible%20for,11%25%20from%20materials% 20and%20construction.

Dr. Wahidul K. Biswas
Prof. Dr. Chithirai Pon Selvan
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Buildings is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

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  • Greater discoverability: Special Issues support the reach and impact of scientific research. Articles in Special Issues are more discoverable and cited more frequently.
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  • e-Book format: Special Issues with more than 10 articles can be published as dedicated e-books, ensuring wide and rapid dissemination.

Further information on MDPI's Special Issue polices can be found here.

Published Papers (9 papers)

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Research

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19 pages, 5882 KiB  
Article
Design Methods of Aluminium Pin-Ended Columns with Topology-Optimised Cross-Sections
by Mehmet Ali Güler, Aykut Artac, Bora Yildirim and Konstantinos Daniel Tsavdaridis
Buildings 2024, 14(11), 3588; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14113588 - 12 Nov 2024
Viewed by 416
Abstract
This paper presents a numerical study of topology-optimised pin-end aluminium alloy columns using finite element analysis (FEA). The FEA models integrate geometric imperfections and material nonlinearity, and are validated against experimental findings from the existing literature. ABAQUS v.6.15 (release 2020) is used in [...] Read more.
This paper presents a numerical study of topology-optimised pin-end aluminium alloy columns using finite element analysis (FEA). The FEA models integrate geometric imperfections and material nonlinearity, and are validated against experimental findings from the existing literature. ABAQUS v.6.15 (release 2020) is used in preparing the FEA models and obtaining the analysis results. Furthermore, modern design methodologies including Eurocode 9, the direct strength method (DSM), and the continuous strength method (CSM) are employed to assess the maximum load capacity of such columns. Parametric investigations encompass diverse parameters such as varied cross-sections, column lengths, and global and local imperfections. By analysing a total of 288 FE models, incorporating 16 column cross-sections across two lengths with nine distinct imperfections, this study compares results with those derived from modern design methodologies. Thus, this research elucidates the behaviour of novel cross-sections and the application of contemporary design techniques in their analysis. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Buildings for the 21st Century)
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19 pages, 2825 KiB  
Article
Redesigning Building Thermal Science Education Through Inquiry-Based Experiential Learning
by Jinxun Zhuang, Chenshun Chen and Julian Wang
Buildings 2024, 14(11), 3455; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14113455 - 30 Oct 2024
Viewed by 475
Abstract
Mastering building thermal science is essential for architectural professionals, as it supports the design of energy-efficient and thermally optimized buildings, which are critical for addressing the growing demands of sustainable architecture. However, traditional teaching methods often disconnect theoretical instruction from practical application, limiting [...] Read more.
Mastering building thermal science is essential for architectural professionals, as it supports the design of energy-efficient and thermally optimized buildings, which are critical for addressing the growing demands of sustainable architecture. However, traditional teaching methods often disconnect theoretical instruction from practical application, limiting students’ ability to apply core concepts in real-world scenarios. This study introduces a pedagogical reform that integrates design-oriented and inquiry-based experiments, hands-on physical activities, and field-based testing into the teaching of building thermal science. The revised curriculum focuses on applying theoretical principles in real architectural contexts, allowing students to directly design and experience thermal phenomena such as heat transfer and thermal resistance in building envelope structures. To evaluate the effectiveness of this reform, a control group using traditional confirmatory experiments (following predetermined instructions to complete experiments and validate the results) was compared to a reform group engaged in inquiry-based experimental learning. Over the course of three cohorts (2019, 2020, 2021), the reform group consistently outperformed the control group, with statistically significant improvements in average course grades. Specifically, the reform group had mean grade differences of 7.21 points higher in 2019, 4.55 points higher in 2020, and 5.83 points higher in 2021, as demonstrated by t-test results (p < 0.05). The reform group also exhibited more concentrated grade distributions, reflecting enhanced comprehension and retention of key thermal concepts. In addition to improved academic performance, students in the reform group demonstrated superior problem-solving abilities and a heightened awareness of energy conservation and sustainable design practices. This approach not only deepened their understanding of theoretical knowledge but also fostered a greater commitment to integrating sustainability into their architectural projects. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Buildings for the 21st Century)
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21 pages, 5485 KiB  
Article
Harnessing Natural Pozzolan for Sustainable Heating and Cooling: Thermal Performance and Building Efficiency in Moroccan Climates
by Khadija Annaba, Sara Belarouf, Fatima Zohra El Wardi, Khalid Ibaaz, Mouha Cherkaoui, Céline Florence, Johan Colin, Romain Mege and Yassine El Mendili
Buildings 2024, 14(9), 2633; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14092633 - 25 Aug 2024
Viewed by 843
Abstract
The need to construct environmentally friendly buildings to meet current environmental and ecological standards is urgent. This study introduces a new multi-layer construction material with two outer layers of ordinary mortar and an inner layer of a pozzolane-limes composite to meet this need. [...] Read more.
The need to construct environmentally friendly buildings to meet current environmental and ecological standards is urgent. This study introduces a new multi-layer construction material with two outer layers of ordinary mortar and an inner layer of a pozzolane-limes composite to meet this need. The thermal efficiency of this material in building construction is investigated using TRNSYS18 simulations for two distinct climatic zones in Morocco, with a particular focus on its impact on heating dynamics. The primary objective is to evaluate the thermal performance of multi-layered pozzolanic materials, for which mortar samples are meticulously prepared as a reference in the two different climatic zones (Azilal and Errachidia). Using the asymmetric hot plate method under both stable and transient conditions, the authors conduct thermal characterization experiments. The results underscore the improvement in thermal performance made possible by the incorporation of pozzolan as an aggregate in the multi-layer material compared to ordinary mortar. Specifically, thermal conductivity improves significantly, from 0.735 W m−1 K−1 for ordinary mortar to 0.4 W m−1 K−1 for multi-layered pozzolanic materials, representing a 46% mass gain. Additionally, effusivity decreases from 730 to 604 J m−2 K−1 s−1/2, while diffusivity decreases from 3.78 to 2.23 × 10−7 m2 s−1, further attesting to the material’s thermal efficacy. TRNSYS18 simulations corroborate the viability of using multi-layered materials as building envelopes, revealing potential annual heating gains of 25% in Azilal and 5% in Errachidia. These findings underscore the promising prospects of integrating these materials into sustainable construction practices. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Buildings for the 21st Century)
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20 pages, 12082 KiB  
Article
Reconstructing Energy-Efficient Buildings after a Major Earthquake in Hatay, Türkiye
by Yousif Abed Saleh Saleh, Gulden Gokcen Akkurt and Cihan Turhan
Buildings 2024, 14(7), 2043; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14072043 - 4 Jul 2024
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 856
Abstract
Türkiye’s earthquake zone, primarily located along the North Anatolian Fault, is one of the world’s most seismically active regions, frequently experiencing devastating earthquakes, such as the one in Hatay in 2023. Therefore, reconstructing energy-efficient buildings after major earthquakes enhances disaster resilience and promotes [...] Read more.
Türkiye’s earthquake zone, primarily located along the North Anatolian Fault, is one of the world’s most seismically active regions, frequently experiencing devastating earthquakes, such as the one in Hatay in 2023. Therefore, reconstructing energy-efficient buildings after major earthquakes enhances disaster resilience and promotes energy efficiency through retrofitting, renovation, or demolition and reconstruction. To this end, this study proposes implementing energy-efficient design solutions in dwelling units to minimize energy consumption in new buildings in Hatay, Southern Turkiye, an area affected by the 2023 earthquake. This research focused on a five-story residential building in the district of Kurtlusarımazı, incorporating small-scale Vertical-Axis Wind Turbines (VAWTs) with thin-film photovoltaic (PV) panels, along with the application of a green wall surrounding the building. ANSYS Fluent v.R2 Software was used for a numerical investigation of the small-scale IceWind turbine, and DesignBuilder Software v.6.1.0.006 was employed to simulate the baseline model and three energy-efficient design strategies. The results demonstrated that small-scale VAWTs, PV panels, and the application of a green wall reduced overall energy use by 8.5%, 18%, and 4.1%, respectively. When all strategies were combined, total energy consumption was reduced by up to 28.5%. The results of this study could guide designers in constructing innovative energy-efficient buildings following extensive demolition such as during the 2023 earthquake in Hatay, Türkiye. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Buildings for the 21st Century)
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21 pages, 6407 KiB  
Article
Multi-Zone Energy Performance Assessment of Algerian Social Housing Using a Parametric Approach
by Ikram Hadji, Said Mazouz, Abderrahmane Mejedoub Mokhtari, Mohammed-Hichem Benzaama and Yassine El Mendili
Buildings 2024, 14(6), 1587; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14061587 - 30 May 2024
Viewed by 905
Abstract
In the early stages of building design, decisions are made about the building’s form and envelope, but designers rarely base their decisions on sophisticated energy simulations, even though these features are critical to a building’s energy performance. This paper employs three methods—empirical, parametric, [...] Read more.
In the early stages of building design, decisions are made about the building’s form and envelope, but designers rarely base their decisions on sophisticated energy simulations, even though these features are critical to a building’s energy performance. This paper employs three methods—empirical, parametric, and uncertainty—to assess the interconnectedness of building form, envelope, orientation, and occupancy regarding thermal comfort and energy consumption for heating and cooling a residential building across three regions: Gdyel (mediterranean climate), Oum El Bouaghi, and Constantine (semi-arid climate). The study variables include indoor air temperature, relative humidity, and energy consumption. The initial findings stem from an experiment conducted in an apartment on the top floor of a building in Gdyel, which allowed us to record the evolution of the variables mentioned throughout the year and validate the parametric results of the multi-zone model created in TRNSYS16 software. This study showed that for the considered climates, a compact form is more suitable; it was found that the top floor with SF = 0.57 needs about 30% to 54% more energy than the inter-floor with SF = 0.21. In addition, the heating and cooling methods and habits adopted by Algerian households are responsible for 18% to 35% on the top floor and the inter-floor, respectively. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Buildings for the 21st Century)
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28 pages, 2730 KiB  
Article
Towards Extensive Definition and Planning of Energy Resilience in Buildings in Cold Climate
by Hassam ur Rehman, Mohamed Hamdy and Ala Hasan
Buildings 2024, 14(5), 1453; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14051453 - 17 May 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1213
Abstract
The transition towards a sustainable future requires the reliable performance of the building’s energy system in order for the building to be energy-resilient. “Energy resilient building in cold climates” is an emerging concept that defines the ability to maintain a minimum level of [...] Read more.
The transition towards a sustainable future requires the reliable performance of the building’s energy system in order for the building to be energy-resilient. “Energy resilient building in cold climates” is an emerging concept that defines the ability to maintain a minimum level of indoor air temperature and energy performance of the building and minimize the occupant’s health risk during a disruptive event of the grid’s power supply loss in a cold climate. The aim is to introduce an extensive definition of the energy resilience of buildings and apply it in case studies. This article first reviews the progress and provides an overview of the energy-resilient building concept. The review shows that most of the relevant focus is on short-term energy resilience, and the serious gap is related to long-term resilience in the context of cold regions. The article presents a basic definition of energy resilience of buildings, a systematic framework, and indicators for analyzing the energy resilience of buildings. Terms such as active and passive habitability, survivability, and adaptive habitable conditions are defined. The energy resilience indicators are applied on two simulated Finnish case studies, an old building and a new building. By systematic analysis, using the defined indicators and thresholds, the energy resilience performance of the buildings is calculated and compared. Depending on the type of the building, the results show that the robustness period is 11 h and 26 h for the old building and the new building, respectively. The old building failed to provide the habitability conditions. The impact of the event is 8.9 °C, minimum performance (Pmin) is 12.54 °C, and degree of disruption (DoD) is 0.300 for the old building. The speed of collapse (SoC) is 3.75 °C/h, and the speed of recovery (SoR) is 0.64 °C/h. On the other hand, the new building performed better such that the impact of the event is 4 °C, Pmin is 17.5 °C, and DoD is 0.138. The SoC is slow 3.2 °C/h and SoR is fast 0.80 °C/h for the new building. The results provide a pathway for improvements for long-term energy resilience. In conclusion, this work supports society and policy-makers to build a sustainable and resilient society. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Buildings for the 21st Century)
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20 pages, 4130 KiB  
Article
Appraising the Feasibility of 3D Printing Construction in New Zealand Housing
by Mohammad Khan, Aflah Alamsah Dani, James B. P. Lim and Krishanu Roy
Buildings 2024, 14(4), 1084; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14041084 - 12 Apr 2024
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2140
Abstract
The construction industry in New Zealand is significantly impacted by the importance of housing, particularly as urbanisation continues to grow in major cities. Modern construction methods, such as offsite construction and building automation, evolving into digital manufacturing and construction in the industry, have [...] Read more.
The construction industry in New Zealand is significantly impacted by the importance of housing, particularly as urbanisation continues to grow in major cities. Modern construction methods, such as offsite construction and building automation, evolving into digital manufacturing and construction in the industry, have become prominent. Despite the global recognition of 3D printing technology, its adoption in the construction industry in New Zealand is still relatively limited. This study aims to examine the feasibility of 3D printing construction in response to current market challenges, innovation, and the 2050 net-zero carbon goal. Utilising Building Information Modelling (BIM) and Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) approaches, this study investigated the environmental impacts of three housing types: 3D printing (3DP), light steel framed (LSF), and timber. This study used cradle-to-cradle as the system boundary. The results indicate that the 3DP house emits 20% fewer carbon emissions than the traditional timber house and 25% less than the LSF house. Additionally, the 3DP house exhibits a 19% lower annual electric energy consumption than the timber house. Therefore, in response to the growing housing demand in New Zealand, the construction industry must innovate and embrace digital and advanced construction methods, including the adoption of 3D printing. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Buildings for the 21st Century)
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Review

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25 pages, 5598 KiB  
Review
A Scientometric Review and Analysis of Studies on the Barriers and Challenges of Sustainable Construction
by Hoda Alsadat Vaghefi-Rezaee, Hadi Sarvari, Setareh Khademi-Adel, David J. Edwards and Chris J. Roberts
Buildings 2024, 14(11), 3432; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14113432 - 28 Oct 2024
Viewed by 527
Abstract
Despite numerous concerns about climate change and the deterioration of nature, the construction industry is still one of the largest consumers of minerals and natural resources. In recent decades, sustainable construction using renewable and recyclable materials, reducing energy, and the adoption of more [...] Read more.
Despite numerous concerns about climate change and the deterioration of nature, the construction industry is still one of the largest consumers of minerals and natural resources. In recent decades, sustainable construction using renewable and recyclable materials, reducing energy, and the adoption of more green technologies with the aim of reducing harmful impacts on the environment have received profound worldwide attention. The more key stakeholders involved strive to achieve sustainability, the more barriers they may face, which requires investigating them to have an effective plan to recognize, prevent, and control them. This paper reviews, classifies, and analyzes the major barriers of sustainable construction between January 2000 and April 2023. In this scientometric study, 153 articles were selected from the Web of Science database. Then, bibliometrics, the creation of maps from network data, as well as the illustration and exploration of those maps were conducted with the HistCite 12.03.1 and VOSviewer 1.6.20 software programs. The analytical results showed that the most profound barriers of sustainable construction are classified into 12 groups: price, economic parameters, awareness, technical, policy and regulations, design, management and government, environmental, social, materials, planning, and market. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Buildings for the 21st Century)
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24 pages, 11017 KiB  
Review
Exploring the Potential of Using Waste Clay Brick Powder in Geopolymer Applications: A Comprehensive Review
by Shaila Sharmin, Wahidul K. Biswas and Prabir K. Sarker
Buildings 2024, 14(8), 2317; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14082317 - 26 Jul 2024
Viewed by 844
Abstract
The application of geopolymers has recently been given significant attention to address climate change and the growing scarcity of construction materials in the 21st century. Researchers have utilized industrial waste or supplementary cementitious materials containing high levels of silica and alumina as precursors [...] Read more.
The application of geopolymers has recently been given significant attention to address climate change and the growing scarcity of construction materials in the 21st century. Researchers have utilized industrial waste or supplementary cementitious materials containing high levels of silica and alumina as precursors along with different alkaline activators. Furthermore, the technical challenges associated with waste brick management or recycling include both land use changes and financial implications. The existence of amorphous aluminosilicates in waste clay bricks, which can be used as geopolymer binders, has drawn attention recently. This paper reviews the recent advancements of the integration of clay brick wastes in geopolymer applications, individually as well as its use with other alternative materials. Prior studies suggest that waste clay bricks can effectively serve as the primary source material in geopolymer applications. This review covers various aspects, including the assessment of fresh, mechanical, microstructure, and durability-related properties. It specifically focused on enhancing these properties of waste clay bricks through mechanical and thermal treatments, through varying curing conditions, utilizing different types of alkaline activators, and considering their properties and corresponding ratios in the development of geopolymer products using waste brick powder. Furthermore, this paper portrays a critical review of the sustainability implications of the utilization of clay brick waste in geopolymer applications. Conclusively, this review provided the lessons learnt, research gaps, and the future direction for investigation into the feasibility of geopolymers derived from waste clay brick powder. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Buildings for the 21st Century)
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