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Green Asphalt Materials—Surface Engineering and Applications
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Green Asphalt Materials—Surface Engineering and Applications

A special issue of Coatings (ISSN 2079-6412). This special issue belongs to the section "Surface Characterization, Deposition and Modification".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 January 2025) | Viewed by 9312

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Qian Chen

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Guest Editor
School of Highway, Chang’an University, Xi’an, China
Interests: green road materials; pavement preventive maintenance; bridge deck pavement technology; asphalt modifying technology
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Xiaolong Sun

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
School of Civil and Transportation Engineering, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou, China
Interests: solid waste utilization; green construction technology; functional pavement materials; asphalt modifying technology
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Tao Wang

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
School of Civil Engineering, Beijing Jiaotong University, Beijing, China
Interests: binder material; smart road construction; green materials; intelligent transportation; pavement structure
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Guoqiang Sun

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Road & Urban Railway Engineering, Beijing University of Technology, 100 Pingleyuan, Beijing 100124, China
Interests: self-healing asphalt materials; high-viscosity modified asphalt material; bio-asphalt material; phase change asphalt material; recycled asphalt pavement; conductive ultra-thin wearing course; asphalt aging and anti-aging
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Asphalt is commonly used in the construction of pavement engineering works and coatings. Since entering the 21st century, the emergence of new functional materials and the development of interdisciplinary research have provided strong support for the design and construction of all kinds of green asphalt materials. In recent decades, the composition and properties of asphalt paving materials have changed dramatically. The development of green, sustainable, and functional materials is a new challenge that researchers worldwide are facing to tackle the aforementioned needs.

This Special Issue shall highlight the latest trends in novel green asphalt materials with special functions. The forwarding of this research will guide the development direction of functional asphalt materials.

Original research articles and reviews are welcome. Research areas may include (but are not limited to) the following:

  • Applications of novel materials in asphalt pavement materials;
  • Polymer bonding materials;
  • Polymer and fiber-modified asphalt materials;
  • Water-based resin-modified emulsified asphalt;
  • Temperature-reduced production and paving of asphalt mixtures;
  • Cracking and healing in asphalt mixtures;
  • Pervious asphalt concrete;
  • Asphalt fume pollution prevention and control;
  • Automotive exhaust degradation materials;
  • Recycling for waste asphalt pavement materials;
  • Biomass asphalt material.

We look forward to receiving your contributions.

Dr. Qian Chen
Dr. Xiaolong Sun
Dr. Tao Wang
Dr. Guoqiang Sun
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Coatings is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • applications of novel materials in asphalt pavement materials
  • polymer bonding materials
  • polymer and fiber-modified asphalt materials
  • water-based resin-modified emulsified asphalt
  • temperature-reduced production and paving of asphalt mixtures
  • cracking and healing in asphalt mixtures
  • pervious asphalt concrete
  • asphalt fume pollution prevention and control
  • automotive exhaust degradation materials
  • recycling for waste asphalt pavement materials
  • biomass asphalt material

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Further information on MDPI's Special Issue polices can be found here.

Published Papers (9 papers)

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Research

27 pages, 6983 KiB  
Article
Assessment of the Wettability and Mechanical Properties of Stearic-Acid-Modified Hydrophobic Cementitious Materials
by Xuhao Wang, Wenxiao Zhang, Yuan Wang, Hongke Wu, Dunzhu Danzeng and Yahong Meng
Coatings 2025, 15(1), 100; https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings15010100 - 17 Jan 2025
Viewed by 487
Abstract
Moisture is a critical factor leading to the deterioration of concrete structures. Hydrophobic cement-based materials, with their excellent waterproof performance, hold significant application value in humid, coastal, and cold environments. This study employed stearic acid (STA, CH3(CH2)16COOH) [...] Read more.
Moisture is a critical factor leading to the deterioration of concrete structures. Hydrophobic cement-based materials, with their excellent waterproof performance, hold significant application value in humid, coastal, and cold environments. This study employed stearic acid (STA, CH3(CH2)16COOH) as a hydrophobic agent dissolved in anhydrous ethanol using ultrasonication to create an STA–ethanol solution. In addition, the ball-milling method was used to mix STA with tuff powder (TP) to prepare hydrophobic modified tuff powder (MTP). This study investigated the effects of the STA content, water–cement (w/c) ratio, cement–sand (c/s) ratio, the replacement rate, and addition method of TP and MTP on the wettability (contact angle and sorptivity) and compressive strength of the mortar. The effects of the STA on the cement hydration were explored by microanalysis techniques, such as SEM, XRD, and FTIR, and the modification method with the best effect was recommended based on a gray correlation degree analysis. The results indicate that the STA could be successfully grafted into the mortar without affecting the types of cement hydration products. When using the STA–ethanol solution for hydrophobic modification, adding 0.9% STA by weight increased the mortar contact angle to 69.5° and reduced the sorptivity by 22%, while the 28-day compressive strength was decreased. When the w/c ratio was 0.5, the contact angle rose with the increase in the replacement rate of MTP, while the sorptivity and compressive strength decreased. The grey relational analysis showed that at a w/c ratio of 0.4, the STA–ethanol solution was a more effective modification method in terms of reducing the mortar sorptivity. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Green Asphalt Materials—Surface Engineering and Applications)
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17 pages, 4419 KiB  
Article
Non-Linear Support Vector Machine Prediction of the Mechanical Properties of Asphalt Binders Subjected to Varying Temperatures and Frequencies Based on SARA
by Shanglin Song, Yiqian Ma, Xiaoqiang Jiang, Dengzhou Li, Xiaoyan Ma and Shidong Qiu
Coatings 2025, 15(1), 62; https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings15010062 - 8 Jan 2025
Viewed by 404
Abstract
This study investigates the effects of chemical fractions on the mechanical properties of asphalt binders and predicts the mechanical properties of asphalt binders based on the chemical fractions. Initially, four fractions—saturate, aromatic, resin, and asphaltene (SARA)—were isolated from 36 asphalt binders using a [...] Read more.
This study investigates the effects of chemical fractions on the mechanical properties of asphalt binders and predicts the mechanical properties of asphalt binders based on the chemical fractions. Initially, four fractions—saturate, aromatic, resin, and asphaltene (SARA)—were isolated from 36 asphalt binders using a thin-layer chromatography with flame ionization detection (TLC-FID) analyzer. Subsequently, the complex modulus and phase angle of the asphalt binders were determined for a range of frequencies and temperatures. The relationships between SARA content, heavy components, colloidal instability index, and the complex modulus and phase angle were analyzed. Advanced models, including quadratic polynomial and non-linear support vector machine (SVM) with sigmoid and RBF (Gaussian) kernels, were employed to predict the complex modulus and phase angle of asphalt binders based on the SARA data, and the reliability of these prediction models was critically assessed. The findings indicate that the contents of asphaltenes, resins, aromatics, and saturates significantly influence the rheological properties at different frequencies, though a clear correlation between SARA contents and both the complex modulus and phase angle was not established. Alternative methods should be considered for studying the mechanical properties of asphalt derived from SARA. The RBF kernel demonstrated superior performance compared to the quadratic polynomial and non-linear SVM with the Sigmoid kernel. While the non-linear SVM with the RBF kernel accurately predicts the complex modulus, it fails to predict the phase angle at low frequencies. The validation of this model confirmed its efficacy in capturing the relationship between input (SARA) and output (complex modulus and phase angle) vectors for each asphalt binder. The predicted complex modulus master curves closely match the experimental results, yet the model only approximates the trend of phase angle variation with frequency. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Green Asphalt Materials—Surface Engineering and Applications)
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18 pages, 10684 KiB  
Article
Characterization of Thermal and Stress Dual-Induced Nano-SiC-Modified Microcapsules
by Yunlong Sun, Xiaoping Ji, Yueqin Hou, Siqi Wang, Ye Chen, Lu Liu and Sijia Liu
Coatings 2024, 14(12), 1573; https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings14121573 - 16 Dec 2024
Viewed by 591
Abstract
This work reports a kind of thermal and stress dual-induced nano-SiC-modified microcapsule that is applied to asphalt pavement to improve its self-healing performance. For this purpose, the microcapsules needed to contain a regenerator and be stable in an asphalt mixture. In addition, the [...] Read more.
This work reports a kind of thermal and stress dual-induced nano-SiC-modified microcapsule that is applied to asphalt pavement to improve its self-healing performance. For this purpose, the microcapsules needed to contain a regenerator and be stable in an asphalt mixture. In addition, the microcapsules needed to have good wave-absorbing and temperature-raising properties to realize the dual-mechanism-induced release of microcapsules. In the first step in this study, heat-stressed double microcapsules were prepared. Then, the properties of the microcapsules—including basic properties, stability, mechanical properties, and wave-absorbing and temperature-raising properties—were tested. Finally, the self-healing mechanism of the microcapsules was observed. The results show that the nano-SiC-modified microcapsules have a high core content (87.6%), suitable particle size (average particle size of 53.50 µm), high thermal stability (mass loss of 2.92% at 150~170 °C), high construction stability (survival rate of more than 80%), high storage stability (loss rate of 2.35% at 49 d), and high mechanical properties (Young’s modulus and nano-hardness of 3.15 Gpa and 0.54 Gpa, respectively). Compared with microcapsules without nano-SiC, the thermal conductivity of the 10% nano-SiC-modified microcapsules increased by 21.6%, their specific heat capacity decreased by 10.45%, and their thermal diffusion coefficient increased by 36.96% after microwave heating for 6 min. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Green Asphalt Materials—Surface Engineering and Applications)
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18 pages, 2698 KiB  
Article
Predicting Dynamic Properties and Fatigue Performance of Aged and Regenerated Asphalt Using Time–Temperature–Aging and Time–Temperature–Regenerator Superposition Principles
by Zhaoli Wang, Hongli Ding, Xiaoyan Ma, Wanhong Yang and Xiaojun Ma
Coatings 2024, 14(12), 1486; https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings14121486 - 25 Nov 2024
Viewed by 608
Abstract
Reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP) reduces energy consumption and enhances economic benefits by recycling road materials, making it an effective approach for the sustainable use of solid waste resources. The performance of reclaimed asphalt pavement is significantly affected not only by the degradation of [...] Read more.
Reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP) reduces energy consumption and enhances economic benefits by recycling road materials, making it an effective approach for the sustainable use of solid waste resources. The performance of reclaimed asphalt pavement is significantly affected not only by the degradation of asphalt binders due to aging but also by the dosage of the rejuvenator used. The master curve of the complex shear modulus is widely recognized as a valuable tool for characterizing the rheological properties of asphalt binders. First, a virgin asphalt binder with a grade of SK70 was subjected to varying degrees of aging, followed by the rejuvenation of the aged asphalt using different dosages of the rejuvenator. Second, frequency sweeps were conducted on the aged and rejuvenated asphalt binders at various temperatures. Complex modulus master curves were constructed, and the CAM model was applied to fit these curves. The viscoelastic properties of asphalt at different aging levels and rejuvenator dosages were then analyzed based on the CAM parameters. Next, by applying a curve-shifting technique based on the least squares method to a reference state, both the time–temperature–aging (TTA) and time–temperature–regenerator (TTR) master curves of the complex modulus were constructed. The relationships between aging shift factors and aging times, as well as between regenerator shift factors and dosages, were established to predict the complex moduli of both aged and rejuvenated asphalt. Finally, the shear stress–strain relationships and material integrity of aged and rejuvenated asphalt were evaluated to assess their fatigue performance. The results indicated that aging significantly increases the complex modulus of asphalt, with TFOT (Thin Film Oven Test) aging having a more pronounced impact than PAV (Pressurized Aging Vessel) aging, resulting in reduced viscous deformation and an increased risk of cracking. Rejuvenator dosage reduces the complex modulus, with a 6% dosage effectively restoring mechanical properties and enhancing low-temperature performance. The TTA master curve demonstrates a strong linear correlation between aging shift factors and time, allowing for accurate predictions of the complex modulus of aged asphalt. Similarly, the TTR master curve reveals a linear relationship between regenerator dosage and shift factor, offering high predictive accuracy for optimizing regenerator dosages in engineering applications. The study further explores how varying levels of aging and rejuvenator dosage affect fatigue life under different strain conditions, uncovering complex behaviors influenced by these aging and regeneration processes. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Green Asphalt Materials—Surface Engineering and Applications)
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16 pages, 4760 KiB  
Article
Influence of Construction Process on Aggregate Spalling Behavior on Ultrathin Waterborne Epoxy Resin Layer
by Jiaquan Yuan, Yifan Zhang, Haoyang Huang, Gang Zhou, Chaoliang Fu, Wenhong Duan, Weihong Jiang, Li Xiong, Huimei Li, Xiaohua Yang and Chuanqiang Li
Coatings 2024, 14(11), 1468; https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings14111468 - 18 Nov 2024
Viewed by 710
Abstract
The waterborne epoxy resin (WER) colored antiskid thin layer has been widely used in asphalt pavement to improve driving safety. The tectonic depth determines the antiskid performance of aparticle antiskid type thin layer. The spalling of aggregate from a thin layer may reduce [...] Read more.
The waterborne epoxy resin (WER) colored antiskid thin layer has been widely used in asphalt pavement to improve driving safety. The tectonic depth determines the antiskid performance of aparticle antiskid type thin layer. The spalling of aggregate from a thin layer may reduce the tectonic depth, thus damaging antiskid performance. The spreading process of aggregate on the WER binder surface plays an important role in the spalling behavior of the thin layer. Herein, the influence of spreading processes on the ceramic aggregate spalling behavior on the WER thin layer was investigated based on laboratory experiments. The abrasion and British Pendulum Number (BPN) tests were employed to evaluate the antispalling and antiskid properties of the WER thin layers with different amounts of WER mortar, coverage rates of first-spread aggregate, and spreading orders of coarse/fine aggregates. Moreover, the tectonic depths of the layers before/after the spalling test were also investigated. The results indicated that the optimal dosage of WER mortar is 2.8 kg/m2. The WER thin layer exhibited better anti-striping property when coarse ceramic aggregate was spread first. The first-spread coverage rate of the aggregate on the WER surface is 70%. The thin layer exhibited a superior antispalling performance according to the resulting scheme, with a spalling rate of 3.77%. The tectonic depth only decreased from 1.87 to 1.80 mm after the spalling test. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Green Asphalt Materials—Surface Engineering and Applications)
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18 pages, 40053 KiB  
Article
Thermal-Mechanical Coupling Analysis of Permeable Asphalt Pavements
by Yuekun Li, Xulong Wang, Hailong Zhang, Zhenxia Li and Tengteng Guo
Coatings 2024, 14(5), 582; https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings14050582 - 7 May 2024
Viewed by 973
Abstract
In order to clarify the mechanical response of permeable asphalt pavements under a temperature effect, the mechanical responses of different types of permeable asphalt pavements, which were based on a self-developed drainage SBS-modified asphalt mixture with fiber, were simulated using ANSYS finite element [...] Read more.
In order to clarify the mechanical response of permeable asphalt pavements under a temperature effect, the mechanical responses of different types of permeable asphalt pavements, which were based on a self-developed drainage SBS-modified asphalt mixture with fiber, were simulated using ANSYS finite element software (APDL 19.2). The influence of temperature and temperature change on the mechanical behavior of the permeable asphalt pavements was studied, and the mechanical responses of the pavements at different driving speeds was analyzed. The results show that the extreme values of surface deflection, compressive strain of the soil foundation top surface, and the shear stress and tensile stress of the upper-layer bottom of the three kinds of pavements under dynamic load were about 10% smaller than those under static loads, and the extreme values under different temperature conditions were 28%~50% larger than the values obtained without different temperature conditions. During the 12 h heating process, the mechanical indexes of the three types of pavements with axle loads were consistent with the change law of temperature, and the peak values of the mechanical indexes under dynamic loads were smaller than those under static loads. In addition, the mechanical indexes of the three types of pavements under dynamic loads had the same law of change with speed under the same conditions, and the values were less than the extreme values under static loads, but the degree of influence was different. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Green Asphalt Materials—Surface Engineering and Applications)
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24 pages, 5728 KiB  
Article
Study on Rheological Properties and Modification Mechanism of Budun Rock Asphalt/Nano-Silica Composite Modified Asphalt
by Chaojie Li, Zhenxia Li, Tengteng Guo, Yuanzhao Chen, Shangwei Jing, Jing Wang and Lihui Jin
Coatings 2024, 14(2), 226; https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings14020226 - 14 Feb 2024
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1491
Abstract
To enhance the high and low-temperature performance of asphalt materials and extend the service life of asphalt pavement, two types of external admixtures, Butonite rock asphalt, and nano-silica are added to the asphalt. By conducting dynamic shear rheological tests and bending creep stiffness [...] Read more.
To enhance the high and low-temperature performance of asphalt materials and extend the service life of asphalt pavement, two types of external admixtures, Butonite rock asphalt, and nano-silica are added to the asphalt. By conducting dynamic shear rheological tests and bending creep stiffness tests, the high and low-temperature rheological properties of Budun rock asphalt/nano-silica composite-modified asphalt were evaluated. The distribution of Budun rock asphalt and nano-silica in asphalt was studied using scanning electron microscopy and infrared spectroscopy tests, revealing the synergistic modification mechanism of Budun rock asphalt and nano-silica. The results show that the optimal dosage of Butonite rock asphalt and nano-silica composite-modified asphalt is 25% and 5%, respectively. At this dosage, the rutting factor G*/sinδ of composite-modified asphalt at 82 °C Compared with the matrix asphalt, the frequency main curve of Budun rock asphalt/nano-silica composite-modified asphalt is higher than that of the matrix asphalt and nano-silica-modified asphalt by 4 kPa. The creep modulus S at −18 °C decreases by 117.2 MPa, indicating that the high-temperature performance, low-temperature performance, and temperature sensitivity of Budun rock asphalt/nano-silica composite-modified asphalt are significantly improved compared to the matrix asphalt; The distribution of nano-silica particles in Budun rock asphalt/nano-silica composite-modified asphalt is uniform, and together with Budun rock asphalt, it forms a stable three-dimensional network skeleton structure; Budun rock asphalt/nano-silica composite-modified asphalt has generated new functional groups, and the blending process is mainly based on physical reactions, supplemented by weak chemical reactions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Green Asphalt Materials—Surface Engineering and Applications)
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17 pages, 4127 KiB  
Article
Enhancing the Efficiency of Ice-Resistant Materials in Asphalt Road Surfaces: A Comprehensive Performance Analysis
by Xijuan Zhao, Yemao Zhang and Mulian Zheng
Coatings 2024, 14(1), 37; https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings14010037 - 27 Dec 2023
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1549
Abstract
This study addresses the critical issue of traffic safety in winter, particularly focusing on the challenges posed by ice and snow on roads. Traditional methods of snow and ice removal are often labor-intensive, inefficient, and environmentally harmful. The objective is to develop a [...] Read more.
This study addresses the critical issue of traffic safety in winter, particularly focusing on the challenges posed by ice and snow on roads. Traditional methods of snow and ice removal are often labor-intensive, inefficient, and environmentally harmful. The objective is to develop a more effective solution for asphalt pavement deicing. Inspired by the anti-icing coating technology used in high-voltage conductors, this research develops an ice-suppressing material designed to reduce the adhesion between snow, ice, and pavement surfaces. The material’s performance is evaluated in terms of deicing efficiency, durability, adhesive properties, and its impact on pavement performance. Test results demonstrate that the developed ice-suppressing material significantly reduces the adhesion between the ice layer and the pavement, facilitating easier removal. This study concludes that the developed ice-suppressing material significantly enhances deicing efficiency on asphalt pavements. It exhibits strong hydrophobic properties, as evidenced by increased water droplet contact angles on coated surfaces (99.5° to 83.3°) compared to clean glass slides (39.2° to 29°). This hydrophobicity effectively reduces ice adhesion, decreasing tensile and shear strength of the ice layer by 38.2% and 63.6%, respectively. Additionally, the material demonstrates superior ice-melting capabilities in sub-zero temperatures, with coated ice cubes showing a higher mass reduction rate than uncoated ones. Importantly, its slow-release nature ensures sustained deicing performance over multiple cycles, maintaining effectiveness after seven test cycles. This study introduces an innovative ice-suppressing material that not only improves the efficiency and environmental impact of deicing methods but also contributes to enhancing road safety in winter conditions. The material’s novel composition and sustained effectiveness present a significant advancement in the field of winter road maintenance. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Green Asphalt Materials—Surface Engineering and Applications)
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14 pages, 3939 KiB  
Article
Long-Term Performance Analysis of Epoxy Resin Ultra-Thin Wearing Course Overlay on Cement Concrete Pavement
by Xiaoguang Zheng, Yajie Chen, Wanwan Xu, Zhen Zhang, Guoqiang Sun and Tao Wang
Coatings 2023, 13(8), 1455; https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings13081455 - 18 Aug 2023
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1847
Abstract
The overall rigidity of the cement concrete pavement is high, but there are defects such as easy cracking and insufficient anti-slip performance. The epoxy resin ultra-thin wearing course overlay can effectively solve these issues. However, there is still a lack of knowledge about [...] Read more.
The overall rigidity of the cement concrete pavement is high, but there are defects such as easy cracking and insufficient anti-slip performance. The epoxy resin ultra-thin wearing course overlay can effectively solve these issues. However, there is still a lack of knowledge about the long-term performance of epoxy resin ultra-thin wearing course overlay on cement concrete pavement. Therefore, this article analyzed the interlayer adhesion and durability of epoxy resin ultra-thin wearing course overlay through the Hamburg rutting test and a series of shear tests under damp heat, thermal oxygen aging, and ultraviolet (UV) aging conditions. Shear test results indicated that the shear performance of epoxy resin overlay grew with the increase in epoxy resin content and was severely affected by high temperature, and the optimal content was set as 3.4 kg/m2. The Hamburg rutting test results showed that the epoxy resin overlay exhibited satisfactory high-temperature performance and water resistance. For the damp heat effect, it was revealed that damp heat led to more significant shear strength loss compared with the overlay specimens without damp heat. The water immersion caused the shear strength decline due to the water damage to the overlay interface. As for the thermal oxygen aging effect, it was reflected that the short-term thermal oxygen aging had a minor impact on the shear performance of the epoxy resin overlay. However, with the increase in thermal oxygen aging duration, the shear strength of the epoxy resin overlay significantly decreased due to the aging of epoxy resin binders. Regarding the UV aging impact, it was also found that the shear performance of the epoxy resin overlay rapidly decreased as the UV aging duration grew whether at 20 °C or 60 °C. Moreover, UV aging led to a more significant impact on the shear performance of the epoxy resin overlay than thermal oxygen aging. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Green Asphalt Materials—Surface Engineering and Applications)
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