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5 pages, 163 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Ecosystem Observation, Simulation and Assessment: Progress and Challenges

by Peng Hou

Diversity 2023, 15(2), 255; https://doi.org/10.3390/d15020255 - 11 Feb 2023

Viewed by 4220

Abstract

Ecosystems provide supply, regulation, culture and support services for human-being, and overall support human survival and sustainable development [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ecosystem Observation, Simulation and Assessment)

Research

Jump to: Editorial

15 pages, 3391 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Microbial Community Abundance Affects the Methane Ebullition Flux in Dahejia Reservoir of the Yellow River in the Warm Season

by Yi Wu, Xufeng Mao, Liang Xia, Hongyan Yu, Yao Yu, Wenjia Tang, Feng Xiao and Haichuan Ji

Diversity 2023, 15(2), 154; https://doi.org/10.3390/d15020154 - 21 Jan 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1861

Abstract

Reservoirs are an integral part of the global carbon cycle and generally considered to be methane (CH₄) emission hot spots. Although remarkable research achievements have been made concerning CH₄ ebullition from inland waters, such as rivers, lakes, and ponds, few [...] Read more.

Reservoirs are an integral part of the global carbon cycle and generally considered to be methane (CH₄) emission hot spots. Although remarkable research achievements have been made concerning CH₄ ebullition from inland waters, such as rivers, lakes, and ponds, few have been devoted to CH₄ ebullition from plateau reservoirs. The present study focused on CH₄ ebullition from the Dahejia Reservoir located in the upper reaches of the Yellow River. We analyzed the spatial and temporal characteristics of CH₄ ebullition flux across the water-atmosphere interface between July and August 2021. We also evaluated the influence of microbes on CH₄ ebullition flux. The results showed that (1) CH₄ ebullition was the dominant mode of CH₄ emissions in the study site, which contributed to 78.85 ± 20% of total CH₄ flux. (2) The mean CH₄ ebullition flux in the nighttime (0.34 ± 0.21 mg m⁻² h⁻¹) was significantly higher than that in the daytime (0.19 ± 0.21 mg m⁻² h⁻¹). The mean CH₄ ebullition flux first decreased and then increased from the upstream (0.52 ± 0.57 mg m⁻² h⁻¹) to the downstream (0.43 ± 0.3 mg m⁻² h⁻¹) of the Yellow River. (3) Sediment microbes affected the CH₄ ebullition flux primarily by changing the microbial community abundance. The regression analysis showed that CH₄ ebullition flux had a significantly linear negative correlation with microbial abundance in sediments. The redundancy analysis further showed CH₄ ebullition flux was significantly positively correlated with the abundances of Firmicutes and Actinobacteria, and negatively with that of Proteobacteria and Chloroflexi. Among abiotic variables, CH₄ ebullition flux was closely related to total phosphorus, total organic carbon, pH and nitrate nitrogen. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ecosystem Observation, Simulation and Assessment)

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21 pages, 8151 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Assessment of Spatiotemporal Dynamics of Mangrove in Five Typical Mangrove Reserve Wetlands in Asia, Africa and Oceania

by Cun Du, Shahbaz Khan, Yinghai Ke and Demin Zhou

Diversity 2023, 15(2), 148; https://doi.org/10.3390/d15020148 - 21 Jan 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2699

Abstract

Mangrove wetlands play a key role in global biodiversity conservation, though they have been damaged in recent decades. Therefore, mangrove habitats have been of great concern at the international level since the latter half of the 20th century. We focused on the key [...] Read more.

Mangrove wetlands play a key role in global biodiversity conservation, though they have been damaged in recent decades. Therefore, mangrove habitats have been of great concern at the international level since the latter half of the 20th century. We focused on the key issue of the dynamics of mangrove habitats. A comprehensive review of their typicality and status from the global perspective was evaluated before the landscape dynamics of the mangrove habitats at the five sites were interpreted from Landsat satellite images covering 20 years, from 2000 to 2020. Ground-truthing was undertaken after comparing the results with the other published international mangrove datasets. We reached three conclusions: Firstly, within the period from 2000 to 2020, the mangrove area in Dongzhaigang increased by 414 ha, with an increase of 24.6%. In Sembilang NP, Sundarban, Kakadu NP, and RUMAKI, the mangrove area decreased by 1652 ha, 16,091 ha, 83 ha, and 2012 ha, with a decrease of 1.8%, 2.7%, 0.9%, and 3.9%, respectively. Secondly, other types of wetlands play a key role in degradating the mangrove wetlands in all of five protected areas. Thirdly, the rate of mangrove degradation has slowed dramatically based on the five sites over the past two decades, which are generally consistent with the findings of other researchers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ecosystem Observation, Simulation and Assessment)

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16 pages, 2893 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Different Fertilizers on Soil Microbial Diversity during Long-Term Fertilization of a Corn Field in Shanghai, China

by Chenyan Sha, Jian Wu, Jianqiang Wu, Chunmei Ye, Cheng Shen, Jinghua Su and Min Wang

Diversity 2023, 15(1), 78; https://doi.org/10.3390/d15010078 - 6 Jan 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2899

Abstract

The long-term applications of different fertilizers (chicken manure, swine manure, and organic fertilizer) on the microorganisms of a corn field were investigated. The microbial communities during four periods (seedling, three-leaf, filling and mature periods) were comprehensively studied with molecular biology technology. Results showed [...] Read more.

The long-term applications of different fertilizers (chicken manure, swine manure, and organic fertilizer) on the microorganisms of a corn field were investigated. The microbial communities during four periods (seedling, three-leaf, filling and mature periods) were comprehensively studied with molecular biology technology. Results showed that most nutrient contents (organic matter, nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium) and levels of several heavy metals (As, Pb, and Cr) in the chicken and swine manures were higher than those in the organic fertilizer. The alpha diversity varied during the long-term fertilization, and the chicken manure was the best fertilizer to maintain the abundance of microorganisms. The microbial community of soil changes over time, regardless of the addition of different fertilizers. The correlations between environmental factors and microbial communities revealed that nutrient substances (available nitrogen, available potassium, and NO₃-N) were the most significant characteristics with the chicken and swine manures, while organic matter and nitrogen exhibited similar effects on the microbial structure with the organic fertilizer. The Pearson correlations of environmental factors on genus were significantly different in the organic fertilizer tests compared with the others, and Pseudomonas, Methyloligellaceae, Flavobacterium, and Bacillus showed significant correlations with the organic matter. This study will provide a theoretical basis for improving land productivity and sustainable development in corn fields. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ecosystem Observation, Simulation and Assessment)

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19 pages, 2489 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Coupling Relationship between Ecosystem Service Value and Socioeconomic Development in the Qinba Mountains, China

by Qi Ma, Mengquan Zhou, Jiechao Liu, Jing Zhao and Meijun Xi

Diversity 2022, 14(12), 1105; https://doi.org/10.3390/d14121105 - 12 Dec 2022

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 1574

Abstract

The degree of coordination between ecosystem services and the level of socioeconomic development has essential implications for regional sustainability. The coordinated development of ecology and economy is a major theoretical and practical problem for the Qinba Mountains, which is once one of the [...] Read more.

The degree of coordination between ecosystem services and the level of socioeconomic development has essential implications for regional sustainability. The coordinated development of ecology and economy is a major theoretical and practical problem for the Qinba Mountains, which is once one of the 14 contiguous destitute areas in China. Based on the land use and cover change (LUCC) data interpreted by medium-resolution remote sensing images, this study adopted the modified equivalent factor method to calculate ecosystem service value (ESV) and its temporal and spatial variation in the Qinba Mountains. A comprehensive index system was constructed to measure the socioeconomic development level and to reveal the coupling relationship between the ESV and socioeconomic development. The results show that: (1) for 2000–2015, the ESV in these areas was increasing, the proportion of forest ESV was the largest, and it increased significantly. (2) The level of socioeconomic development was constantly improving, and the differences within the region were gradually emerging. (3) Except for the Hantai District, which has been in a highly uncoordinated state, the degree of coordination between ESV and socioeconomic development has improved year by year, and most counties were in a state of medium coordination, or above. The results contribute to a scientific basis for decision making regarding ecological environmental protection and green economic development in the Qinba Mountains, and have positive significance for promoting the construction of ecological civilization and sustainable development in the study area. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ecosystem Observation, Simulation and Assessment)

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13 pages, 2838 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Invasive Water Hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) Increases Methane Emissions from a Subtropical Lake in the Yangtze River in China

by Wenchang Zhou, Shanshan Xiang, Yuhu Shi, Xiuhuan Xu, Huicui Lu, Wenhui Ou and Jiawei Yang

Diversity 2022, 14(12), 1036; https://doi.org/10.3390/d14121036 - 26 Nov 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2686

Abstract

Lakes represent an important source of atmospheric methane (CH₄); however, there are few studies on which lake-dwelling invasive aquatic plants generate CH₄. Therefore, in this study, CH₄ emissions were measured using a floating chamber and gas chromatography in [...] Read more.

Lakes represent an important source of atmospheric methane (CH₄); however, there are few studies on which lake-dwelling invasive aquatic plants generate CH₄. Therefore, in this study, CH₄ emissions were measured using a floating chamber and gas chromatography in a subtropical lake in China. We considered four community zones of invasive plants (Eichhornia crassipes), emergent vegetation (Zizania latifolia), floating-plant (Trapa natans) and open-water zones. The results indicate that the flux of CH₄ emissions varied between −5.38 and 102.68 mg m⁻² h⁻¹. The higher emission values were attributed to lake eutrophication. Moreover, the flux of CH₄ emissions in the invasive plant zone was 140–220% higher than that in the open-water and the floating-plant zones. However, there was no significant difference in CH₄ emissions between the invasive plant and the emergent vegetation zones. This may be due to a higher production of plants, as well as the rapid reproductive rate of the invasive plants. Finally, CH₄ emissions were positively associated with the air and water temperature; however, the emissions were also negatively associated with water depth. Our results suggest that invasive plants enhance freshwater CH₄ emissions, thus contributing to global warming. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ecosystem Observation, Simulation and Assessment)

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12 pages, 7605 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Influence of Ecological Engineering on Waterbird Diversity in Different Habitats within the Xianghai Nature Reserve

by Dehao Li, Shiying Zhu, Jin Gao, Haibo Jiang, Guangyi Deng, Lianxi Sheng, Yingyue Cao, Lianshan Li and Baoqing Lin

Diversity 2022, 14(12), 1016; https://doi.org/10.3390/d14121016 - 22 Nov 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1963

Abstract

The Xianghai National Nature Reserve of Jilin is located on the East Asian-Australian migration route of birds and plays an important role for migratory waterbirds. To explore the influence of restoration measures on migratory waterbird communities in Xianghai Reserve, we conducted a waterbird [...] Read more.

The Xianghai National Nature Reserve of Jilin is located on the East Asian-Australian migration route of birds and plays an important role for migratory waterbirds. To explore the influence of restoration measures on migratory waterbird communities in Xianghai Reserve, we conducted a waterbird survey in the spring and autumn during waterbird migration from 2010 to 2020. The composition and spatial and temporal changes in waterbird communities were identified in the reserve and the diversity changes in waterbird communities were analyzed. The results showed that (1) the number of waterbirds increased significantly since restoration measures in 2012. Restoration measures has clearly promoted an improvement in the species and number of waterbirds. The number of waterbirds was approximately seven-times higher than that before restoration measures. (2) The number of rare waterbirds increased in the reserve, and the number of Anseriform waterbirds on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species rapidly increased. (3) The diversity of the waterbird community has shown some recovery in the reserve, but the variation in water level during some periods led to a regular fluctuation in waterbird diversity. Restoration measures directly changed the water surface area and the water depth in the reserve, which are important variables that influence waterbird selection of wetlands as habitats. To effectively protect and manage important stopover sites on the migratory routes of waterbirds, we suggest to rationally regulate the supplementary water level of wetlands, optimize the hydrological pattern of wetlands, and strengthen the regulation of wetland water levels. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ecosystem Observation, Simulation and Assessment)

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19 pages, 3995 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Impacts of China’s Western Development and Protection Strategy: An Ecosystem Services Perspective of Western China

by Yan Wang, Naifeng Lin, Jixi Gao, Changxin Zou and Delin Xu

Diversity 2022, 14(10), 863; https://doi.org/10.3390/d14100863 - 12 Oct 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2138

Abstract

Policies directly affect land-use change, which in turn, affects ecosystem services. In parallel with the implementation of a full-scale development program for the western region, the Chinese government has introduced a series of ecological protection and restoration strategies for development and construction. This [...] Read more.

Policies directly affect land-use change, which in turn, affects ecosystem services. In parallel with the implementation of a full-scale development program for the western region, the Chinese government has introduced a series of ecological protection and restoration strategies for development and construction. This study conducted a quantitative spatial evaluation of the ecosystem service value (ESV) of national nature reserves in the western region under this dual policy of development and protection. On the basis of land-use data and related evaluation parameters, fluctuations in the valuation of ecosystem services during 2000–2010 were analyzed in response to land-use changes under the comprehensive policy. Results showed that the increases in the areas of forestland and water bodies led to an increase of CNY 74.1 billion in the ESV from 2000 to 2010, equivalent to 2.02%. Grassland with increased production capacity and water bodies were the main factors driving the total ESV dynamics. Values of all ES increased significantly. Therefore, the ecological conservation and restoration policy, along with the development policy, had a positive influence on ecosystem services in the nature reserves in western China. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ecosystem Observation, Simulation and Assessment)

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17 pages, 4786 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Hyperspectral Inversion of Soil Carbon and Nutrient Contents in the Yellow River Delta Wetland

by Leichao Nie, Zhiguo Dou, Lijuan Cui, Xiying Tang, Xiajie Zhai, Xinsheng Zhao, Yinru Lei, Jing Li, Jinzhi Wang and Wei Li

Diversity 2022, 14(10), 862; https://doi.org/10.3390/d14100862 - 11 Oct 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2077

Abstract

Hyperspectral inversion techniques can facilitate soil quality monitoring and evaluation. In this study, the Yellow River Delta Wetland Nature Reserve was used as the study area. By measuring and analyzing soil samples under different vegetation types and collecting soil reflectance spectra, the relationships [...] Read more.

Hyperspectral inversion techniques can facilitate soil quality monitoring and evaluation. In this study, the Yellow River Delta Wetland Nature Reserve was used as the study area. By measuring and analyzing soil samples under different vegetation types and collecting soil reflectance spectra, the relationships between vegetation types, soil depth, and the changes in soil total carbon (TC), total nitrogen (TN), and total phosphorus (TP) contents were assessed. The spectral data set was changed by spectral first derivative processing and division of the sample set according to vegetation type. The correlation between soil carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus contents, and soil spectra was also analyzed, sensitive bands were selected, and the partial least-squares (PLS) method, support vector machine (SVM) method, and random forest (RF) model were used to establish the inversion model based on the characteristic bands. The optimal combination of spectral transformation, sample set partitioning, and inversion model was explored. The results showed significant differences (p < 0.05) in soil TC, TN, and TP contents under reed and saline alkali poncho vegetation, but not between soil element contents under different stratifications of the same plant species. The first derivative reflectance had higher correlation coefficients with soil TC, TN, and TP contents compared with the original reflectance, while the sensitive bands and quantities of the three elements differed. The division of the sample sets according to vegetation type and the first derivative treatment can improve the prediction accuracy of the model. The best combination of sample set plus FD plus RF for TC, TN, and TP in reed soil and sample set plus FD plus SVM for TC, TN, and TP in saline alkali pine soil provides technical support to further improve the prediction accuracy of TC, TN, and TP in wetland soil. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ecosystem Observation, Simulation and Assessment)

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22 pages, 8280 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Detection of Large Herbivores in UAV Images: A New Method for Small Target Recognition in Large-Scale Images

by Jiarong Ma, Zhuowei Hu, Quanqin Shao, Yongcai Wang, Yanqiong Zhou, Jiayan Liu and Shuchao Liu

Diversity 2022, 14(8), 624; https://doi.org/10.3390/d14080624 - 5 Aug 2022

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2097

Abstract

Algorithm design and implementation for the detection of large herbivores from low-altitude (200 m–350 m) UAV remote sensing images faces two key problems: (1) the size of a single image from the UAV is too large, and the mainstream algorithm cannot adapt to [...] Read more.

Algorithm design and implementation for the detection of large herbivores from low-altitude (200 m–350 m) UAV remote sensing images faces two key problems: (1) the size of a single image from the UAV is too large, and the mainstream algorithm cannot adapt to it, and (2) the number of animals in the image is very small and densely distributed, which makes the model prone to missed detection. This paper proposes the following solutions: For the problem of animal size, we optimized the Faster-RCNN algorithm in terms of three aspects: selecting a HRNet feature extraction network that is more suitable for small target detection, using K-means clustering to obtain the anchor frame size that matches the experimental object, and using NMS to eliminate detection frames that have sizes inconsistent with the size range of the detection target after the algorithm generates the target detection frames. For image size, bisection segmentation was used when training the model, and when using the model to detect the whole image, we propose the use of a new overlapping segmentation detection method. The experimental results obtained for detecting yaks, Tibetan sheep (Tibetana folia), and the Tibetan wild ass in remote sensing images of low-altitude UAV from Maduo County, the source region of the Yellow River, show that the mean average precision (mAP) and average recall (AR) of the optimized Faster-RCNN algorithm are 97.2% and 98.2%, respectively, which are 9.5% and 12.1% higher than the values obtained by the original Faster-RCNN. In addition, the results obtained from applying the new overlap segmentation method to the whole UAV image detection process also show that the new overlap segmentation method can effectively solve the problems of the detection frames not fitting the target, missing detection, and creating false alarms due to bisection segmentation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ecosystem Observation, Simulation and Assessment)

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14 pages, 3397 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Habitat Suitability Assessment of Black-Necked Crane (Grus nigricollis) in the Zoige Grassland Wetland Ecological Function Zone on the Eastern Tibetan Plateau

by Junjun Bai, Peng Hou, Diandian Jin, Jun Zhai, Yutiao Ma and Jiajun Zhao

Diversity 2022, 14(7), 579; https://doi.org/10.3390/d14070579 - 20 Jul 2022

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 3035

Abstract

Habitat suitability assessment is critical for wildlife population conservation and management planning. The MaxEnt model is widely used in species habitat suitability modeling. In order to investigate the habitat status of the black-necked crane in the Zoige grassland wetland ecological function area, this [...] Read more.

Habitat suitability assessment is critical for wildlife population conservation and management planning. The MaxEnt model is widely used in species habitat suitability modeling. In order to investigate the habitat status of the black-necked crane in the Zoige grassland wetland ecological function area, this study evaluated the habitat suitability of the black-necked crane using the MaxEnt model with 152 occurrence records and 13 environmental variables. Based on the Akaike information criterion corrected for the small sample size, the best optimal parameter combination (feature class LQPHT, regularization multiplier 3.0) was selected. The results show that the Maxent model had good accuracy with an area under the curve (AUC) value of 0.895. Distance to roads, average summer precipitation, distance to lakes, and altitude are the dominant environmental variables affecting the potential distribution of black-necked cranes, with the contribution rates of 31.6%, 29.8%, 14.3%, and 8.2%, respectively. The suitable habitat area of black-necked cranes is mainly distributed in and around the Zoige Wetland National Nature Reserve, accounting for 46.49% of the Zoige Grassland Wetland National Key Ecological Function Zone. The potential distribution area has a tendency to spread to Hongyuan County in the south of the functional zone, and the unsuitable habitat is mainly distributed in the high-altitude area in the southwest of the functional zone. This study recommends focusing on the distribution area of black-necked cranes around Zoige Wetland National Nature Reserve and Hongyuan County to improve conservation strategies and strengthen protection efforts. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ecosystem Observation, Simulation and Assessment)

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13 pages, 16620 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Assessment of Changes in Key Ecosystem Factors and Water Conservation with Remote Sensing in the Zoige

by Peng Hou, Jun Zhai, Dian-Dian Jin, Yan Zhou, Yan Chen and Hai-Feng Gao

Diversity 2022, 14(7), 552; https://doi.org/10.3390/d14070552 - 9 Jul 2022

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2083

Abstract

As the largest alpine peat swamp wetland distribution area in the world, the Zoige has important ecological functions, including water conservation and biodiversity maintenance. In the past 20 years, the regional ecological protection and restoration measures continuously strengthened under the leadership of the [...] Read more.

As the largest alpine peat swamp wetland distribution area in the world, the Zoige has important ecological functions, including water conservation and biodiversity maintenance. In the past 20 years, the regional ecological protection and restoration measures continuously strengthened under the leadership of the local government have led to gradual improvements in the ecological environment of the region. In this study, multisource satellite remote-sensing image data were used to carry out quantitative monitoring and assessment of the main ecological elements (vegetation and water), as well as the regional leading ecosystem service function in the Zoige. Combined with local ecological protection management policies and measures, we analyzed the characteristics and effectiveness of ecological protection. We compared the ecosystem change trends of the Zoige reserve and the county, from 2001 to 2020, and found that the fractional vegetation cover (FVC) of Zoige county has increased at a rate of 0.25%/year. The growth rate was highest between 2015 and 2020, and the growth rate of FVC in the Zoige Wetland National Nature Reserve is approximately 1.89-fold that of the whole county. The water area also shows similar variation characteristics. On the whole, the water conservation capacity of the Zoige showed a significant increase from 2001 to 2020. We used high-resolution satellite remote-sensing images to capture the details of land use changes brought about by local ecological protection policies and measures, and together with macroecological indicators, we reflected on the effectiveness of regional ecological protection measures. We observed that the ecological effects of nature reserves are more direct and rapid, and the amount of water conservation within the nature reserve is about 1 × 10⁴ m³/km² higher than that of the surrounding grasslands. Satellite remote-sensing images can not only capture the multiscale change information of ecological indicators, such as vegetation and water, in a timely manner, but can also help us to identify the effectiveness of conservation measures by distinguishing and analyzing the causes of these changes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ecosystem Observation, Simulation and Assessment)

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20 pages, 7044 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluation of Production–Living–Ecological Functions in Support of SDG Target 11.a: Case Study of the Guangxi Beibu Gulf Urban Agglomeration, China

by Ziyan Ling, Weiguo Jiang, Chaoming Liao, Yanshun Li, Yurong Ling, Kaifeng Peng and Yawen Deng

Diversity 2022, 14(6), 469; https://doi.org/10.3390/d14060469 - 11 Jun 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2338

Abstract

Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) target 11.a is a good vision for the coordinated development of the economy, society and environment in urban agglomerations. However, there was an extreme lack of indicators, data or case studies for SDG target 11.a, since it is a [...] Read more.

Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) target 11.a is a good vision for the coordinated development of the economy, society and environment in urban agglomerations. However, there was an extreme lack of indicators, data or case studies for SDG target 11.a, since it is a vague “process target”, which is not conducive to the implementation of SDG target 11.a. It is important to propose a quantitative, convenient, and local policies relevant method to promote the realization or to test the implementation effects of SDG target 11.a. Combined with socio-economic data and land use data, this study uses the methods of comprehensive evaluation model, coupling and coordination degree, and comparative advantage degree methods to study the pattern evolution, coordination characteristics and advantageous areas of production–living–ecological (PLE) functions in the Guangxi Beibu Gulf Urban Agglomeration (GBG_UA) from 1995 to 2019. The results showed that, (1) considering the spatiotemporal distribution of PLE functions, the study area has a relatively stable ecological function as well as fluctuating production and living functions. Considering the coordination characteristics of PLE functions, high–high and low–low clustering effects were observed, and primary coordination maintained the highest proportion, accounting from 55.26% in 1995 to 71.05% in 2019, indicating the SDG target 11.a level in the GBG_UA was poor. Considering the advantageous areas for PLE functions, the region mostly comprises single-function advantageous areas and a few multifunction advantageous areas, including 20 single-function advantage counties (accounting for 52%), 15 dual-function advantage counties (accounting for 39%), and three multi-function advantage counties (accounting for 7.8%), which indicates the lack of diversified land use structures in this region. (2) Optimization suggestions for the coordinated development and realization of SDG target 11.a for the GBG_UA were provided. Suggestions were made based on the radiation and driving role of Nanning city to guide the coordinated development of surrounding counties (districts). Suggestions were also made to improve the design of the integrated transportation network as well as to optimize allocation according to the resource endowment of land and to realize an upgraded ecology as well as agricultural products and services. (3) The evaluation of PLE functions is a quantitative and convenient method that can optimize national and regional development planning and test the implementation effects of SDG target 11.a. This study offers foundational knowledge for the realization of SDG target 11.a in the GBG_UA and provides a reference for the research and implementation of SDG target 11.a in other regions around the world. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ecosystem Observation, Simulation and Assessment)

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16 pages, 7872 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Projections of the Net Primary Production of Terrestrial Ecosystem and Spatiotemporal Responses to Climate Change in the Yangtze River Economic Belt

by Li Yu, Botao Zhou, Yuqing Xu, Yongxiang Zhang and Fengxue Gu

Diversity 2022, 14(5), 327; https://doi.org/10.3390/d14050327 - 22 Apr 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2410

Abstract

Evaluating the responses of net primary productivity (NPP) to climate change is essential for regional ecosystem management and adaptations to climate change. The Yangtze River Economic Belt (YREB) is a key ecological functional area and hotspot of carbon sequestration in China due to [...] Read more.

Evaluating the responses of net primary productivity (NPP) to climate change is essential for regional ecosystem management and adaptations to climate change. The Yangtze River Economic Belt (YREB) is a key ecological functional area and hotspot of carbon sequestration in China due to the high degree of forest coverage. We used a process-based ecosystem model to project terrestrial NPP and analyzed the response to climate change over the 21st century in the YREB under two representative concentration pathway (RCP) scenarios using the regional climate model. The results show that the projection of NPP generally increased by 13.5% under RCP4.5 and 16.4% under RCP8.5 in the middle of the century, by 23% under RCP4.5, and by 35% under RCP8.5 in the late term of the century compared with that from a reference period of current climate conditions (1985–2006). The rate of NPP change under the RCP8.5 scenario is higher than that under the RCP4.5 scenario. Similarly, the NPP is also projected to increase both with 1.5 and 2 °C global warming targets in the YREB. The magnitudes of NPP increment are approximately 14.7% with 1.5 °C and 21% with 2 °C warming targets compared with the current climate, which are higher than the average increments of China. Although NPP is projected to increase under the two scenarios, the tendency of NPP increasingly exhibits a slowdown after the 2060 s under the RCP4.5 scenario, and the growth rate of NPP is projected to drop in more than 31% of regional areas with the additional 0.5 °C warming. In contrast, under the RCP8.5 scenario, the trend in NPP keeps rising substantially, even above 2 °C global warming. However, the NPP in some provinces, including Jiangxi and Hunan, is projected to reduce at the end of the 21st century, probably because of temperature rises, precipitation decreases, and water demand increases. Generally, the NPP is projected to increase due to climate change, particularly temperature increase. However, temperature rising does not always show a positive effect on NPP increasing; the growth rate of NPP will slow down under the RCP4.5 scenario in the mid-late 21st century, and NPP will also reduce by the end of this century under the RCP8.5 scenario in some places, probably presenting some risks to terrestrial ecosystems in these areas, in terms of reduced functions and service decline, a weakened capacity of carbon sequestration, and reduced agricultural production. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ecosystem Observation, Simulation and Assessment)

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17 pages, 7713 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Assessment of Grassland Ecosystem Service Value in Response to Climate Change in China

by Yuqing Xu, Fengjin Xiao and Yaoming Liao

Diversity 2022, 14(3), 160; https://doi.org/10.3390/d14030160 - 24 Feb 2022

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3210

Abstract

The assessment of ecosystem services provides an intuitive source of information on the benefits humans derive from ecosystems. The equivalent factor method was applied to calculate the ecosystem service value (ESV) in combination with net primary productivity (NPP) calculated by the process-based Carnegie–Ames–Stanford [...] Read more.

The assessment of ecosystem services provides an intuitive source of information on the benefits humans derive from ecosystems. The equivalent factor method was applied to calculate the ecosystem service value (ESV) in combination with net primary productivity (NPP) calculated by the process-based Carnegie–Ames–Stanford approach (CASA) model. This study evaluated grassland ESV and its spatial evolution characteristics in China from 2001 to 2020 and revealed the impact of climate factors. For 2001–2020, the annual grassland ESV ranged from 1.17 × 10¹² to 1.51 × 10¹² yuan (renminbi, China yuan—the same below; $0.15 × 10¹²–$0.20 × 10¹², US dollar), with an average of 1.37 × 10¹² yuan ($0.18 × 10¹²). The spatial pattern of ESV per unit area of grassland was notably characterized by an increase from northwest to southeast. However, the value of grassland ecosystem services was relatively large (exceeding 10 × 10⁶ yuan; $1.30 × 10⁶) in northern and western provinces and was the lowest (less than 0.2 × 10⁶ yuan; $0.03 × 10⁶) in eastern and southern provinces. In the last 20 years, grassland ESV has increased in most areas of China and has decreased only in some western and northern areas. Compared with the first 10 years, the average ESV of grassland in most areas increased in the last 10 years, usually by less than 20%. However, it decreased in the western and northern parts of China, mainly concentrated in the alpine meadow and alpine grassland of the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau and the grassland around the Yili region of Xinjiang. Precipitation was the main regulating factor of grassland ESV and had a positive impact in 79% grassland areas, especially in northern China. Evapotranspiration and sunshine hours exhibited a marginal impact on ESV, but temperature and relative humidity had no significant effect. Overall, this study contributes to exploring the spatiotemporal patterns of grassland ecosystem service value and the impact of climate factors in China, thereby providing reliable guidance for grassland ecosystem management. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ecosystem Observation, Simulation and Assessment)

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