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A special issue of Fermentation (ISSN 2311-5637). This special issue belongs to the section "Fermentation for Food and Beverages".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (15 December 2018) | Viewed by 100014

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Dr. Harald Claus

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Institute for Molecular Physiology, Johannes Gutenberg-University, Johann-Joachim-Becher-Weg 15, 55128 Mainz, Germany
Interests: wine microbiology; phenoloxidases; biotechnical enzymes; bioethanol; bioremediation
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Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Life is an evolutionary process that is subjected to permanent alterations with the need for adaptions to changing conditions. The same is very true for the traditional art of wine fermentation. In the last few years, wineries have been facing new challenges due to current market demands for the creation of products exhibiting more individual flavors. Distinct climate changes provoke the search for grape varieties with specific features, such as convenient maturation times, enhanced tolerances towards dryness and osmotic stress, as well as resistance against invasive phytopathogenic organisms.

Innovative winemaking techniques and new yeast strains will contribute to solve some of these problems, such as increased sugar concentrations at grape maturity. Non-conventional Saccharomyces species like S. uvarum, S. kudriavzevii and their natural hybrids exhibit good fermentative capacities producing wines with lower ethanol and higher glycerol concentrations. In addition, they may be useful to avoid stuck fermentations as they can grow at deeper temperatures even under nitrogen limitations and display a more fructophilic character. Current biological approaches are in progress for wine deacidification using Saccharomyces yeasts in addition to the classical lactic acid bacteria Oenococcus oenii or Lactobacillus plantarum.

Non-Saccharomyces yeasts, considered essentially as “wild” spoiling microorganisms in the past, are estimated beneficial today as they improve the wine aroma profile when grown in controlled mixed starter fermentations together with S. cerevisiae. Artificial hybrids as well as collection of adapted isolates from various ecological niches all over the world will further extend winemakers yeast toolkit, allowing specific fermentations.

Not only causing gustatory pleasures and sometimes stimulating effects, moderate wine consumption has also been recognized as beneficial to human health in many clinical studies. Especially polyphenols in red wine are associated with positive antioxidant and cardiovascular properties. Modern winemaking techniques will take care to maintain high levels of these beneficial compounds, but at the same time to minimize concentrations of risky wine ingredients such as sulfites, biogenic amines, heavy metals, mycotoxins or proteins with allergenic potential.

The application of technical enzymes in wine fermentations offer many advantages such as speeding up settling and clarification processes, increased juice yields, higher contents of phenolic compounds and aroma precursors, improved color stability, as well as wine filterability. They are effective, specific and convenient to use, and it can be expected that the search for enzymes from grape-associated yeasts with improved characteristics will continue.

This Special Issue comprises actual studies addressing some problems and solutions for environmental, technical and consumer challenges of “Wine Fermentation” in the 21st century.

Dr. Harald Claus
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Fermentation is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2100 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

wine aroma
starter cultures
mixed fermentations
stuck fermentations
yeast hybrids
grape resistance
microbial ecology
enzymes
malolactic fermentation
human health

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Published Papers (11 papers)

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Editorial

Jump to: Research, Review

3 pages, 145 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Wine Fermentation

by Harald Claus

Fermentation 2019, 5(1), 19; https://doi.org/10.3390/fermentation5010019 - 12 Feb 2019

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 4819

Abstract

Currently wineries are facing new challenges due to actual market demands for creation of products exhibiting more individual flavors [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wine Fermentation)

Research

Jump to: Editorial, Review

16 pages, 1583 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Microwave-Assisted Extraction Applied to Merlot Grapes with Contrasting Maturity Levels: Effects on Phenolic Chemistry and Wine Color

by L. Federico Casassa, Santiago E. Sari, Esteban A. Bolcato and Martin L. Fanzone

Fermentation 2019, 5(1), 15; https://doi.org/10.3390/fermentation5010015 - 28 Jan 2019

Cited by 29 | Viewed by 5025

Abstract

Merlot grapes were harvested with three maturity levels (21.1, 23.1, and 25.1 Brix), and processed with or without the application of microwave-assisted extraction (MW). The detailed phenolic composition and color were followed during winemaking. The MW treatment did not affect the basic chemical composition of the wines. Upon crushing, MW caused a 211% improvement in anthocyanins in the wines of the first harvest and an 89% improvement in the wines of the third harvest. At bottling, MW favored the formation of pyranoanthocyanins and tannin-anthocyanin dimers. Tannin extraction was not affected by MW just after application of this process, but improvements of 30, 20, and 10% on MW-treated wines of the first, second, and third harvest, respectively, were recorded at pressing. The formation of polymeric pigments during aging generally increased along with harvest date and was only favored in MW-treated wines of the first and third harvest, with preferential formation of small polymeric pigments, in accordance with enhanced anthocyanin extraction in these wines. Initial improvements of wine color upon application of MW in the wines of the first, second, and third harvest were of 275, 300, and 175%, respectively. Although these differences subsided or disappeared for the wines of the second and third harvest during aging, the wines of the first harvest treated with MW retained 52% more color than Control wines at day 150 post-crushing. Results suggest the MW treatment was more efficient in extracting and retaining phenolics and color when applied to unripe fruit. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wine Fermentation)

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13 pages, 868 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Characterization of Saccharomyces bayanus CN1 for Fermenting Partially Dehydrated Grapes Grown in Cool Climate Winemaking Regions

by Jennifer Kelly, Fei Yang, Lisa Dowling, Canan Nurgel, Ailin Beh, Fred Di Profio, Gary Pickering and Debra L. Inglis

Fermentation 2018, 4(3), 77; https://doi.org/10.3390/fermentation4030077 - 13 Sep 2018

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 6511

Abstract

This project aims to characterize and define an autochthonous yeast, Saccharomyces bayanus CN1, for wine production from partially dehydrated grapes. The yeast was identified via PCR and Basic Local Alignment Search Tool (BLAST) analysis as Saccharomyces bayanus, and then subsequently used in fermentations using partially dehydrated or control grapes. Wine grapes were dried to 28.0°Brix from the control grapes at a regular harvest of 23.0°Brix. Both the partially dehydrated and control grapes were then vinified with each of two yeast strains, S. bayanus CN1 and S. cerevisiae EC1118, which is a common yeast used for making wine from partially dehydrated grapes. Chemical analysis gas chromatography-flame ionization detector (GC-FID) and enzymatic) of wines at each starting sugar level showed that CN1 produced comparable ethanol levels to EC1118, while producing higher levels of glycerol, but lower levels of oxidative compounds (acetic acid, ethyl acetate, and acetaldehyde) compared to EC1118. Yeast choice impacted the wine hue; the degree of red pigment coloration and total red pigment concentration differed between yeasts. A sensory triangle test (n = 40) showed that wines made from different starting sugar concentrations and yeast strains both differed significantly. This newly identified S. bayanus strain appears to be well-suited for this style of wine production from partially dehydrated grapes by reducing the oxidative compounds in the wine, with potential commercial application for cool climate wine regions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wine Fermentation)

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28 pages, 487 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Agronomical and Chemical Effects of the Timing of Cluster Thinning on Pinot Noir (Clone 115) Grapes and Wines

by Paul F. W. Mawdsley, Jean Catherine Dodson Peterson and L. Federico Casassa

Fermentation 2018, 4(3), 60; https://doi.org/10.3390/fermentation4030060 - 31 Jul 2018

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 5424

Abstract

A two-year study was performed to evaluate the effects of the timing of cluster thinning on Pinot noir grapes and wines in the central coast of California. Vines were thinned to one cluster per shoot at three selected time-points during the growing season, and fruit was harvested and made into wine. No consistent effect of cluster thinning was found in wine phenolic profile or color across a cool (2016) and a warm (2017) growing season. The growing season had a more significant effect than the cluster thinning treatment for most parameters measured. There was no detectable overall sensory difference between the non-thinned control wines and any of the thinned treatment wines. Based on current results, Pinot noir vineyards on the central coast of California can support crop loads that result in Ravaz Index values from 3 to 6 without concern for impacting ripening potential or negatively affecting fruit composition. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wine Fermentation)

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16 pages, 1194 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

End-User Software for Efficient Sensor Placement in Jacketed Wine Tanks

by Dominik Schmidt, Maximilian Freund and Kai Velten

Fermentation 2018, 4(2), 42; https://doi.org/10.3390/fermentation4020042 - 9 Jun 2018

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 5383

Abstract

In food processing, temperature is a key parameter affecting product quality and energy consumption. The efficiency of temperature control depends on the data provided by sensors installed in the production device. In the wine industry, temperature sensor placement inside the tanks is usually predetermined by the tank manufacturers. Winemakers rely on these measurements and configure their temperature control accordingly, not knowing whether the monitored values really represent the wine’s bulk temperature. To address this problem, we developed an end-user software which 1. allows winemakers or tank manufacturers to identify optimal sensor locations for customizable tank geometries and 2. allows for comparisons between actual and optimal sensor placements. The analysis is based on numerical simulations of a user-defined cooling scenario. Case studies involving two different tanks showed good agreement between experimental data and simulations. Implemented based on the scientific Linux operating system gmlinux, the application solely relies on open-source software that is available free of charge. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wine Fermentation)

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14 pages, 1653 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Comparison of Different Extraction Methods to Predict Anthocyanin Concentration and Color Characteristics of Red Wines

by Stephan Sommer and Seth D. Cohen

Fermentation 2018, 4(2), 39; https://doi.org/10.3390/fermentation4020039 - 7 Jun 2018

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 7032

Abstract

Red wines ferment in contact with skins to extract polyphenols and anthocyanins that help build, establish, and stabilize color. Concentration and composition vary among genera, species, and cultivars. For this study, 11 grapes representing Vitis vinifera (Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Cabernet Franc, Barbera, Syrah, Petite Sirah, Mourvedre), Vitis labrusca (Concord), Muscadinia rotundifolia (Noble), and French-American hybrids (Marquette, Chambourcin) were selected. All cultivars were fermented on skins while color extraction was monitored daily. Each grape was also extracted using six different methods (microwave, and ultrasound assisted, Glorie procedure, ITV Standard (Institut Technique de la Vigne et du Vin), AWRI method (Australian Wine and Research Institute), solvent extraction of skins) and compared to color characteristics of the wines produced by fermentation. Results show that the extraction pattern varies among cultivars. Post-fermentation maceration, pressing, and sulfur dioxide addition lead to color loss up to 68 percent of the original maximum with the highest loss for native American grapes and hybrid varieties. Extraction procedures over-estimate color in the finished wine but are more accurate if compared to peak extraction levels during fermentation. Color loss and suitability of different extraction procedures to predict color characteristics of fermented wine strongly depend on the complexity of the anthocyanin spectrum and therefore the cultivar used. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wine Fermentation)

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Review

Jump to: Editorial, Research

23 pages, 1804 KiB

Open AccessReview

Grape and Wine Metabolomics to Develop New Insights Using Untargeted and Targeted Approaches

by Farhana R Pinu

Fermentation 2018, 4(4), 92; https://doi.org/10.3390/fermentation4040092 - 7 Nov 2018

Cited by 64 | Viewed by 9930

Abstract

Chemical analysis of grape juice and wine has been performed for over 50 years in a targeted manner to determine a limited number of compounds using Gas Chromatography, Mass-Spectrometry (GC-MS) and High Pressure Liquid Chromatography (HPLC). Therefore, it only allowed the determination of metabolites that are present in high concentration, including major sugars, amino acids and some important carboxylic acids. Thus, the roles of many significant but less concentrated metabolites during wine making process are still not known. This is where metabolomics shows its enormous potential, mainly because of its capability in analyzing over 1000 metabolites in a single run due to the recent advancements of high resolution and sensitive analytical instruments. Metabolomics has predominantly been adopted by many wine scientists as a hypothesis-generating tool in an unbiased and non-targeted way to address various issues, including characterization of geographical origin (terroir) and wine yeast metabolic traits, determination of biomarkers for aroma compounds, and the monitoring of growth developments of grape vines and grapes. The aim of this review is to explore the published literature that made use of both targeted and untargeted metabolomics to study grapes and wines and also the fermentation process. In addition, insights are also provided into many other possible avenues where metabolomics shows tremendous potential as a question-driven approach in grape and wine research. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wine Fermentation)

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9 pages, 231 KiB

Open AccessReview

A Future Place for Saccharomyces Mixtures and Hybrids in Wine Making

by Helmut König and Harald Claus

Fermentation 2018, 4(3), 67; https://doi.org/10.3390/fermentation4030067 - 18 Aug 2018

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 5302

Abstract

Each year, winemakers can face sluggish or stuck fermentations during wine making, especially when a spontaneous fermentation is performed, even if strains of the classical wine yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae are applied. Problems are inevitable when low ammonium concentrations (<160 mg L⁻¹ grape must) or an excess of fructose compared to glucose are observed during grape must fermentation. S. cerevisiae strains cannot use all kinds of amino acids as the sole nitrogen source but usually need free ammonium (optimal concentration: 600 mg L⁻¹ grape must). It preferably consumes glucose, leading often to an excess of fructose in the fermenting must, which contains glucose and fructose in an equal ratio at the beginning of fermentation. Yeast hybrids have been isolated from wines several times and different strains are already commercially available. The united properties of the parent strains can provide advantages under sophisticated fermentation conditions. However, the involvement of a hybrid yeast for the rectification of fermentation disorders in spontaneous fermentations has only been described recently in the literature. Recent investigations have provided convincing evidence that fermentation problems can be overcome when must fermentations are successively performed with Saccharomyces bayanus strain HL 77 and the triple hybrid S. cerevisiae × Saccharomyces kudriavzevii × S. bayanus strain HL 78. The triple hybrid strain HL 78 uses amino acids as a nitrogen source in the absence of ammonium and it also exhibits a fructophilic character with an enhanced uptake of fructose in comparison to glucose. The application of genetically modified yeast strains is not allowed for starter cultures in wine making, but the usage of yeast mixtures and hybrid strains could be a promising tool for winemakers to solve fermentation problems during spontaneous fermentation or for the creation of novel wine types with desired sensory characteristics under more challenging conditions, especially when the composition of the must components is not optimal because of, e.g., critical climatic or soil conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wine Fermentation)

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15 pages, 1223 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperReview

Recent Developments on the Origin and Nature of Reductive Sulfurous Off-Odours in Wine

by Nikolaus Müller and Doris Rauhut

Fermentation 2018, 4(3), 62; https://doi.org/10.3390/fermentation4030062 - 8 Aug 2018

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 6422

Abstract

Reductive sulfurous off-odors are still one of the main reasons for rejecting wines by consumers. In 2008 at the International Wine Challenge in London, approximately 6% of the more than 10,000 wines presented were described as faulty. Twenty-eight percent were described as faulty because they presented “reduced characters” similar to those presented by “cork taint” and in nearly the same portion. Reductive off-odors are caused by low volatile sulfurous compounds. Their origin may be traced back to the metabolism of the microorganisms (yeasts and lactic acid bacteria) involved in the fermentation steps during wine making, often followed by chemical conversions. The main source of volatile sulfur compounds (VSCs) are precursors from the sulfate assimilation pathway (SAP, sometimes named as the “sulfate reduction pathway” SRP), used by yeast to assimilate sulfur from the environment and incorporate it into the essential sulfur-containing amino acids methionine and cysteine. Reductive off-odors became of increasing interest within the last few years, and the method to remove them by treatment with copper (II) salts (sulfate or citrate) is more and more questioned: The effectiveness is doubted, and after prolonged bottle storage, they reappear quite often. Numerous reports within the last few years and an ongoing flood of publications dealing with this matter reflect the importance of this problem. In a recent detailed review, almost all relevant aspects were discussed on a scientific data basis, and a “decision tree” was formulated to support winemakers handling this problem. Since we are dealing with a very complicated matter with a multitude of black spots still remaining, these advices can only be realized using specific equipment and special chemicals, not necessarily found in small wineries. The main problem in dealing with sulfurous compounds arises from the high variability of their reactivities. Sulfur is a metalloid with a large valence span across eight electron transformations from S (−II) up to S (+VI). This allows it to participate in an array of oxidation, reduction and disproportionation reactions, both abiotic and linked to microbial metabolism. In addition, sulfur is the element with the most allotropes and a high tendency to form chains and rings, with different stabilities of defined species and a high interconvertibility among each other. We suppose, there is simply a lack of knowledge of what is transferred during filling into bottles after fermentation and fining procedures. The treatment with copper (II) salts to remove sulfurous off-odors before filling rather increases instead of solving the problem. This paper picks up the abundant knowledge from recent literature and tries to add some aspects and observations, based on the assumption that the formation of polythionates, hitherto not taken into consideration, may explain some of the mystery of the re-appearance of reductive off-odors. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wine Fermentation)

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7 pages, 697 KiB

Open AccessReview

Lachancea thermotolerans, the Non-Saccharomyces Yeast that Reduces the Volatile Acidity of Wines

by Alice Vilela

Fermentation 2018, 4(3), 56; https://doi.org/10.3390/fermentation4030056 - 19 Jul 2018

Cited by 72 | Viewed by 8298

Abstract

To improve the quality of fermented drinks, or more specifically, wine, some strains of yeast have been isolated, tested and studied, such as Saccharomyces and non-Saccharomyces. Some non-conventional yeasts present good fermentative capacities and are able to ferment in quite undesirable conditions, such as the case of must, or wines that have a high concentration of acetic acid. One of those yeasts is Lachancea thermotolerants (L. thermotolerans), which has been studied for its use in wine due to its ability to decrease pH through L-lactic acid production, giving the wines a pleasant acidity. This review focuses on the recent discovery of an interesting feature of L. thermotolerans—namely, its ability to decrease wines’ volatile acidity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wine Fermentation)

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19 pages, 781 KiB

Open AccessReview

Enzymes for Wine Fermentation: Current and Perspective Applications

by Harald Claus and Kiro Mojsov

Fermentation 2018, 4(3), 52; https://doi.org/10.3390/fermentation4030052 - 9 Jul 2018

Cited by 89 | Viewed by 33715

Abstract

Enzymes are used in modern wine technology for various biotransformation reactions from prefermentation through fermentation, post-fermentation and wine aging. Industrial enzymes offer quantitative benefits (increased juice yields), qualitative benefits (improved color extraction and flavor enhancement) and processing advantages (shorter maceration, settling and filtration time). This study gives an overview about key enzymes used in winemaking and the effects of commercial enzyme preparations on process engineering and the quality of the final product. In addition, we highlight on the presence and perspectives of beneficial enzymes in wine-related yeasts and lactic acid bacteria. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wine Fermentation)

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