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Heritage
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The Stories That Colours Tell: Historical Paintings, Dyes and Varnishes
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The Stories That Colours Tell: Historical Paintings, Dyes and Varnishes

A special issue of Heritage (ISSN 2571-9408).

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 April 2024) | Viewed by 12797

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Giulia Germinario

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
CNR-ISPC, Institute of Heritage Science, via per Monteroni, 73100 Lecce, Italy
Interests: mass spectrometry; chromatography; analytical chemistry instrumentation; spectroscopy; cultural heritage; chemical analysis
Dr. Michela Botticelli

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Kelvin Centre for Conservation and Cultural Heritage Research, School of Culture and Creative Arts, Kelvin Hall, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, G3 8AW, UK
Interests: provenance of red pigments; archaeological pottery; photonic imaging; mural paintings; ceramic; stones; glass artworks
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Pigments, dyes and varnishes tell many stories. Some pigments were only used for rich clients, artists were unable to give others up despite their toxicity, and others required long manufacturing and purification processes. Sometimes, the artist himself prepared them or some workshop people helped to ground them, although not too much to lose the coloring strength. The skilful use of colors has made it possible to create the works that we can admire today in museums and on the street, thanks to graffiti art. Natural dyes were mainly used to dye fabrics and synthetic ones were today found in felt-tip pens. With the advent of modern pigments and dyes, new shades of color have entered the palettes of artists and together with new problems of degradation due to light, humidity or poor conservation conditions. Often the paintings were covered with layers of varnish, obtained from the processing of terpene resins which served to protect the paintings. But today resins are also found inside ancient ceramic vases used as waterproofing or to give a particular fragrance to wine. To tell these stories, it is necessary to recognize these materials within the works which can be obtained through non-invasive and invasive investigations. XRF and multispectral imaging analysis may be followed by Raman spectroscopy, SERS, FTIR, SEM-EDS and HPLC techniques are only some examples of investigations which can allow us to recognize them within the paintings.

Dr. Giulia Germinario
Dr. Michela Botticelli
Guest Editors

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Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Heritage is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 1600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • non-invasive analyses
  • micro-destructive analyses
  • manufacture processes
  • aging mechanism

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Published Papers (6 papers)

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Research

37 pages, 33981 KiB  
Article
“Codex 4D” Project: Interdisciplinary Investigations on Materials and Colors of De Balneis Puteolanis (Angelica Library, Rome, Ms. 1474)
by Eva Pietroni, Alessandra Botteon, David Buti, Alessandra Chirivì, Chiara Colombo, Claudia Conti, Anna Letizia Di Carlo, Donata Magrini, Fulvio Mercuri, Noemi Orazi and Marco Realini
Heritage 2024, 7(6), 2755-2791; https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage7060131 - 28 May 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 916
Abstract
This paper sheds light on the manufacturing processes, techniques, and materials used in the splendid illuminations of the oldest surviving copy of De Balneis Puteolanis, preserved at the Angelica Library in Rome (Ms. 1474). The codex is one of the masterpieces of mid-13th-century [...] Read more.
This paper sheds light on the manufacturing processes, techniques, and materials used in the splendid illuminations of the oldest surviving copy of De Balneis Puteolanis, preserved at the Angelica Library in Rome (Ms. 1474). The codex is one of the masterpieces of mid-13th-century Italian-Southern illumination, traditionally referred to as the commission of Manfredi, son of Frederick II. The findings reported in the article result from the interdisciplinary study conducted in 2021–2023 in the framework of “Codex 4D: journey in four dimensions into the manuscript”, a multidisciplinary project involving many competences and dealing with art-historical studies on manuscripts, diagnostic and conservative analyses, scientific dissemination, storytelling, and public engagement. The considerations we present aims at increasing the knowledge of book artefacts while respecting their extraordinary complexity; data from non-invasive diagnostic investigations (X-ray fluorescence, Vis-NIR reflectance and Raman spectroscopies, hyperspectral imaging, and multi-band imaging techniques as ultraviolet, reflectography, and thermography), carried out in situ with portable instruments on the book, have been integrated with observations resulting from the historical-artistic study, and the reading of some ancient treatises on the production and use of the pigments and dyes employed in illumination. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Stories That Colours Tell: Historical Paintings, Dyes and Varnishes)
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14 pages, 6494 KiB  
Article
Naples Yellow Revisited: Insights into Trades and Use in 17th-Century Sicily from the Macro X-ray Fluorescence Scanning of Matthias Stomer’s ‘The Mocking of Christ’
by Michela Botticelli, Costanza Miliani, Eva Luna Ravan, Claudia Caliri and Francesco Paolo Romano
Heritage 2024, 7(3), 1188-1201; https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage7030057 - 24 Feb 2024
Viewed by 2311
Abstract
In a recent non-destructive analytical campaign at Museo Civico, Castello Ursino, in Catania, Italy, several paintings in the permanent collection were investigated by MA-XRF scanning, with a special focus on Matthias Stomer’s production. On one depiction of the Mocking of Christ (ca. 1640) [...] Read more.
In a recent non-destructive analytical campaign at Museo Civico, Castello Ursino, in Catania, Italy, several paintings in the permanent collection were investigated by MA-XRF scanning, with a special focus on Matthias Stomer’s production. On one depiction of the Mocking of Christ (ca. 1640) donated to the municipality of Catania by G.B. Finocchiaro in 1826, the analysis documented the use of Naples yellow. Sb with Pb was detected in yellow areas of the Mocking of Christ, but not in his work Tobias healing his father. This finding possibly suggested an early use of lead antimonate yellow in South Italy, although it is generally accepted that this pigment was introduced in painting in the eighteenth century. Further details on his technique and later conservation treatments are provided, as well as literary comparisons with the artistic production during the same period, in Sicily and elsewhere. A systematic study of Stomer’s works, for example examining paintings produced while he was in Naples or Rome, might determine whether this material choice depended on local availability. Overall, it would shed light on his technique, as well as on the history of Naples yellow in southern Italy and beyond, before this pigment became so popular in the eighteenth century. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Stories That Colours Tell: Historical Paintings, Dyes and Varnishes)
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14 pages, 7152 KiB  
Article
Polychrome Bronze Sculpture: A Multi-Analytical Approach to Unveil the Renaissance Gilded Eagles in the Abbey of San Miniato al Monte, Florence
by Emma Cantisani, Nicola Salvioli and Barbara Salvadori
Heritage 2024, 7(2), 983-996; https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage7020047 - 14 Feb 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1811
Abstract
The gilded bronze eagles that stand upon the summit of the Tabernacle by Michelozzo in the Abbey of San Miniato al Monte, Florence (Italy) are an exquisite example of Italian Renaissance sculpture. Commissioned by Piero di Cosimo de Medici, the two eagles, representing [...] Read more.
The gilded bronze eagles that stand upon the summit of the Tabernacle by Michelozzo in the Abbey of San Miniato al Monte, Florence (Italy) are an exquisite example of Italian Renaissance sculpture. Commissioned by Piero di Cosimo de Medici, the two eagles, representing the ancient Arte di Calimala, were cast and decorated by Maso di Bartolomeo in the 1448–1449 period. A multi-analytical approach was set up to characterize the state of conservation, materials used, and artistic technique of the eagles. Non-invasive methods were used and integrated with micro-invasive analyses, such as X-ray fluorescence (XRF) and Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, X-ray diffractometry on powders (XRPD), scanning electron microscopy coupled with EDS (SEM-EDS), and metallographic investigation. The results depict shiny-looking eagles, suggesting the use of oil gilding on almost all surfaces and revealing the presence of polychromies, which is almost unusual in XV-century bronze statuary and is initially hidden by deposits and corrosion products. Indeed, the paws were originally painted with azurite, while the use of cinnabar imparted a vivid red color to the tongue. A black paint containing mercury was found on the eyes and talons. The bales of cloth were decorated with silver, which is now almost completely lost and whose remains are not visible due to being tarnished, while fine details in gold were detected on the lanyard. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Stories That Colours Tell: Historical Paintings, Dyes and Varnishes)
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29 pages, 15659 KiB  
Article
The Colors in Medieval Illuminations through the Magnificent Scriptorium of Alfonso X, the Learned
by Márcia Vieira, Maria João Melo, Paula Nabais, João A. Lopes, Graça Videira Lopes and Laura Fernández Fernández
Heritage 2024, 7(1), 272-300; https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage7010014 - 9 Jan 2024
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2425
Abstract
This pioneering work studied the medieval color palette of four manuscripts produced in the scriptorium of Alfonso X, king of the Crown of Castile (r. 1252-84), including the Songs of Holy Mary (Cantigas de Santa Maria, in Rich Codex and Musicians’ Codex), Lapidary [...] Read more.
This pioneering work studied the medieval color palette of four manuscripts produced in the scriptorium of Alfonso X, king of the Crown of Castile (r. 1252-84), including the Songs of Holy Mary (Cantigas de Santa Maria, in Rich Codex and Musicians’ Codex), Lapidary (Lapidario), and Book of Games (Libro de los juegos). Scientific analysis based on fiber-optics reflectance spectroscopy in the visible and Raman spectroscopy showed a color palette based on lapis lazuli, indigo, azurite, vermilion, red lead, orpiment, yellow ochre, two different greens (bottle green and vergaut), lead white, carbon-based black, and most importantly, brazilwood pinks, reds, and purples. So, it is now the first reported use of this lake pigment in European medieval manuscript illumination. The painting technique is also discussed. The diversity of colors and techniques, with the presence of lapis lazuli, brazilwood lake pigments, purple, and gold, demonstrates Alfonso X’s desire to produce sumptuous manuscripts. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Stories That Colours Tell: Historical Paintings, Dyes and Varnishes)
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16 pages, 1134 KiB  
Article
Paint and Coloring Materials from the Brazilian Amazon Forest: Beyond Urucum and Jenipapo
by Thiago Sevilhano Puglieri and Laura Maccarelli
Heritage 2023, 6(8), 5883-5898; https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage6080309 - 15 Aug 2023
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2576
Abstract
The Brazilian Legal Amazon region is divided into at least 155 ethnic groups and has the largest concentration of Indigenous people globally. It represents one of the most extraordinary levels of human, cultural, and artistic diversity, but its material culture is one of [...] Read more.
The Brazilian Legal Amazon region is divided into at least 155 ethnic groups and has the largest concentration of Indigenous people globally. It represents one of the most extraordinary levels of human, cultural, and artistic diversity, but its material culture is one of the least well-studied. This is especially true in technical art history and conservation science, largely due to (1) the limited international awareness of the richness of materials and techniques used by these Indigenous people and (2) the limitations of knowledge access for many scientists to literature usually published in Portuguese within social sciences and humanities. One result is that these arts are marginalized within technical art history, conservation, and conservation science. To address this knowledge gap, the authors explore 70 materials—among them pigments, dyes, binding media, and varnishes—used for paint production and coloring processes, including syntheses. The authors facilitate research possibilities within technical art history, conservation, and conservation science by presenting data from historical texts from the 18th and 19th centuries and more recent scientific literature. The work aims to build a more global, inclusive, and decentralized vision of art history and to create a more pluralistic narrative of Indigenous art history from South America. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Stories That Colours Tell: Historical Paintings, Dyes and Varnishes)
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17 pages, 6502 KiB  
Article
The Book of Uí Mhaine: An Interdisciplinary Analysis of the Materiality of the Gaelic Manuscript Tradition
by Veronica Biolcati, Meghan Wilson, Sarah Fiddyment, Richard Unitt, Cynthia Connelly Ryan, Anna Grace Hoffmann, John Gillis, Fenella France, Pádraig Ó Macháin and Daniela Iacopino
Heritage 2023, 6(7), 5393-5409; https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage6070284 - 15 Jul 2023
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1694
Abstract
This paper presents the findings of the first multi-analytical investigation of the Book of Uí Mhaine, one of the largest Gaelic Books surviving from the medieval vernacular period. A combination of protein analysis, point X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (XRF), multispectral imaging (MSI), point Fiber-Optic [...] Read more.
This paper presents the findings of the first multi-analytical investigation of the Book of Uí Mhaine, one of the largest Gaelic Books surviving from the medieval vernacular period. A combination of protein analysis, point X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (XRF), multispectral imaging (MSI), point Fiber-Optic Reflectance Spectroscopy (FORS) and point Raman spectroscopy was used to perform a systematic investigation of the Book of Uí Mhaine’s constituent materials, including parchment, inks and pigments. The analysis revealed that the parchment was made of calfskin, both blunt tools and Pb-containing materials were used for ruling the pages throughout the manuscript, and iron-based inks were used to write the content of the book. The decoration was restricted to the initial letters and rubrication across the body text. The decoration color palette was limited to yellow and red, comprising arsenic-, mercury- and lead-based pigments. A copper-based green pigment was found only on one folio. The scientific knowledge acquired through this multi-analytical approach complemented a substantial corpus of knowledge already built by Gaelic scholars, paleographers, codicologists and conservators. This work not only allowed for the consolidation of existing information on methods and materials used for the production of medieval Gaelic manuscripts but also laid the basis for future comparative work with other contemporary traditions in Ireland and Europe. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Stories That Colours Tell: Historical Paintings, Dyes and Varnishes)
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