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Health, Training and Performance in Aquatic Activities and Exercises
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Health, Training and Performance in Aquatic Activities and Exercises

A special issue of International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health (ISSN 1660-4601). This special issue belongs to the section "Global Health".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (28 February 2022) | Viewed by 68268

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Matteo Cortesi

E-Mail Website
Chief Guest Editor
Department for Life Quality Studies, University of Bologna, 47921 Rimini, Italy
Interests: swimming biomechanics; performance in water exercise; energetics of human locomotion in water; key determinants of aquatic sports activities; aquatic human locomotion; training and testing in aquatic activities
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Sandro Bartolomei

E-Mail Website
Assistant Guest Editor
Department for Life Quality Studies, University of Bologna, 40126 Bologna, Italy
Interests: resistance training; strength and power assessments; resistance training periodization; recovery; endocrine responses to resistance exercise; muscle morphology; training for muscle hypertrophy and maximal strength; field hockey
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Giorgio Gatta

E-Mail Website
Assistant Guest Editor
Department for Life Quality Studies, University of Bologna, 47921 Rimini, Italy
Interests: swimming biomechanics; performance in water exercise; energetics of human locomotion in water; key determinants of aquatic sports activities; aquatic human locomotion; training and testing in aquatic activities
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Tomohiro Gonjo

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Assistant Guest Editor
Department of Rehabilitation & Sport Sciences, Bournemouth University, Poole BH12 5BB, UK
Interests: biomechanics; performance analysis; efficiency; paralympic sports and motor control in aquatic locomotion with a particular interest in swimming
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Movement in water is often more accessible and less painful than on land. Aquatic exercise is a useful strategy when people find land-based exercise more difficult or impossible. Movement in water also offers essential resources for training and is a helpful tool in relation to sports rehabilitation. In contrast to aquatic exercise, the term “aquatic activities” involves also the concept of human performance in a water environment. Any motor activities performed in water as efficient and fast as possible are called aquatic activities. Both water exercise and aquatic activities employ the fundamentals of hydrostatics and hydrodynamics to produce unique characteristics that promote health and improve performance through exercise in water. Adaptation to the water environment is the key factor in the preparation process of practitioners and athletes acting in water. The maximization and optimization of human performance in aquatic activities and exercise are therefore the results of technical skill, strength, and endurance improvements.

The aquatic sciences research community is dedicated to advancing the knowledge of human aquatic professionals and has become specialized in order to update the state of the art on this topic. It is necessary to support and to increase our knowledge on topics primarily concerned with the effect on health of training in aquatic activities, sports, and water exercise. This Special Issue aims to attract papers focused on motor activities performed in the aquatic environment for purposes that may be functional, health-related, therapeutic, recreational, competitive, or non-competitive. We also encourage the submission of new highlights in aquatic equipment and technology, or innovative ideas concerning the aquatic research domain.

Dr. Matteo Cortesi
Dr. Sandro Bartolomei
Dr. Tomohiro Gonjo
Dr. Giorgio Gatta
Guest Editors

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Keywords

  • aquatic activities
  • aquatic rehabilitation
  • recovery
  • training
  • strength and conditioning
  • swimming skills
  • performance
  • testing
  • biomechanics

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Related Special Issue

Published Papers (16 papers)

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Research

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11 pages, 8638 KiB  
Article
Correlations between Crawl Kinematics and Speed with Morphologic, Functional, and Anaerobic Parameters in Competitive Swimmers
by Marek Strzała, Arkadiusz Stanula, Piotr Krężałek, Kamil Sokołowski, Łukasz Wądrzyk, Marcin Maciejczyk, Jakub Karpiński, Wojciech Rejdych, Robert Wilk and Wojciech Sadowski
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19(8), 4595; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19084595 - 11 Apr 2022
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1847
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between a unique complex of predictors and 100 m front crawl race kinematics and swimming speed. In 28 male competitive swimmers (age: 19.6 ± 2.59 years), the following groups of predictors were assessed: [...] Read more.
The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between a unique complex of predictors and 100 m front crawl race kinematics and swimming speed. In 28 male competitive swimmers (age: 19.6 ± 2.59 years), the following groups of predictors were assessed: (a) the morphologic, (b) the functional upper limb range of motion, and (c) the anaerobic indices of arm-cranking and a series of countermovement jumps. The Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient was calculated to distinguish the predictors and the swimming results. The main finding was that the indices of the power (arm-cranking) and the work (countermovement jump) generated in the anaerobic tests showed a significant and higher correlation with stroke length and stroke index than total body length, upper limb range of motion, or hand and forearm surface area. These results were obtained in accordance with the high swimming economy index relation to clear surface swimming speed. This study reveals that the strength generated by the limbs may represent a predictor of swimming kinematics in a 100 m front crawl performance. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Health, Training and Performance in Aquatic Activities and Exercises)
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10 pages, 879 KiB  
Article
Competitive-Level Differences in Trunk and Foot Kinematics of Underwater Undulatory Swimming
by Takahiro Tanaka, Satoru Hashizume, Takahiko Sato and Tadao Isaka
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19(7), 3998; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19073998 - 28 Mar 2022
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2067
Abstract
The foot and trunk kinematics could be associated with horizontal velocity during underwater undulatory swimming (UUS). This study aimed to compare the foot and trunk kinematic parameters during UUS between faster and slower swimmers. The three-dimensional coordinates of the markers were collected during [...] Read more.
The foot and trunk kinematics could be associated with horizontal velocity during underwater undulatory swimming (UUS). This study aimed to compare the foot and trunk kinematic parameters during UUS between faster and slower swimmers. The three-dimensional coordinates of the markers were collected during 15 m UUS for 13 swimmers. Participants were divided into two groups based on their horizontal UUS velocity. The range of motion of the lower waist was greater for the faster swimmers than for the slower swimmers; however, no group differences were found for the foot orientation angle. Both the maximum flexion and extension angular velocities of the lower waist and maximum extension angular velocity of the chest were greater for faster swimmers than for slower swimmers. The toe vertical velocity during upward and downward kicks and horizontal displacement per kick were greater for the faster swimmers than for the slower swimmers, whereas no group difference was found for kick frequency. The increase in the long horizontal displacement per kick could be explained by the increase in vertical velocity of the great toes due to the increased trunk angular velocity. These results indicate that faster swimmers performed the UUS with greater trunk angular velocity. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Health, Training and Performance in Aquatic Activities and Exercises)
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10 pages, 925 KiB  
Article
Stroking Rates of Open Water Swimmers during the 2019 FINA World Swimming Championships
by Luis Rodríguez, Santiago Veiga, Iker García and José M González-Ravé
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(13), 6850; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18136850 - 25 Jun 2021
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2965
Abstract
The aim of the present research was to examine the stroking rate (SR) values of successful and non-successful swimmers in the 10 km and 25 km races of the FINA 2019 World Swimming Championships. Data from 175 participants (95 men and 80 female) [...] Read more.
The aim of the present research was to examine the stroking rate (SR) values of successful and non-successful swimmers in the 10 km and 25 km races of the FINA 2019 World Swimming Championships. Data from 175 participants (95 men and 80 female) were classified according to their finishing positions. There were no meaningful differences in the overall SR values displayed by successful or non-successful participants during the 10 km and 25 km open water races of the FINA 2019 World Swimming Championships. However, there were changes in the SR throughout the races that depended on the swimmer’s performance group and gender. Successful swimmers in the 10 km event typically displayed even SR in the first 5 km but, unlike the remaining performance groups, increased their SR at some point in the second 5 km of the race. In the 25 km race, successful female swimmers presented an even SR profile for most of the race, whereas successful males presented a more variable profile. Nevertheless, no relationships between partial or average SR and finishing positions occurred, either in the 10 km or in the 25 km race. Changes in the SR values should be included in the race plan of open water swimmers according to tactical and pacing strategies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Health, Training and Performance in Aquatic Activities and Exercises)
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12 pages, 2105 KiB  
Article
Predicting Breaststroke and Butterfly Stroke Results in Swimming Based on Olympics History
by Maciej Hołub, Arkadiusz Stanula, Jakub Baron, Wojciech Głyk, Thomas Rosemann and Beat Knechtle
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(12), 6621; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18126621 - 20 Jun 2021
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 4228
Abstract
Here we describe historic variations in Olympic breaststroke and butterfly performance and predict swimming results for the 2021 Olympic Games in Tokyo. The results of the finalists, winners, and last participants in the women’s and men’s finals were analyzed, and a mathematical predictive [...] Read more.
Here we describe historic variations in Olympic breaststroke and butterfly performance and predict swimming results for the 2021 Olympic Games in Tokyo. The results of the finalists, winners, and last participants in the women’s and men’s finals were analyzed, and a mathematical predictive model was created. The predicted times for the future Olympics were presented. Swimming performance among Olympians has been steadily improving, with record times of 18.51 s for female finalists in the 100 m butterfly (a 24.63% improvement) and 31.33 s for male finalists in the 200 m butterfly (21.44%). The results in all analyzed groups showed improvement in athletic performance, and the gap between the finalists has narrowed. Women Olympians’ performances have improved faster than men’s, reducing the gap between genders. We conclude that swimming performance among Olympians is continuing to improve. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Health, Training and Performance in Aquatic Activities and Exercises)
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10 pages, 14720 KiB  
Article
Comparison of Starts and Turns between Individual and Relay Swimming Races
by Xiao Qiu, Blanca De la Fuente, Alberto Lorenzo and Santiago Veiga
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(9), 4740; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18094740 - 29 Apr 2021
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2671
Abstract
The present study investigated swimmers’ performances on the starting and turning segments between individual and relay races. A total number of 72 race performances of the same swimmers in both relay 4 × 100 m finals (freestyle, medley, and mixed freestyle) and individual [...] Read more.
The present study investigated swimmers’ performances on the starting and turning segments between individual and relay races. A total number of 72 race performances of the same swimmers in both relay 4 × 100 m finals (freestyle, medley, and mixed freestyle) and individual 100 m finals or semi-finals (butterfly, breaststroke, and freestyle) from the LEN European Swimming Championships were compared with repeated measures MANOVA. Swimmers performed 5–7% faster starts in the relay than in the corresponding individual events, despite no differences in the flight phase and a lower performance (shorter distances and slower velocities) on the underwater start section. The 15 m turn times were slower in the butterfly relay races although no specific differences in the underwater parameters were observed. These results suggest that specific training of the starting and turning segments should be performed under relay conditions to optimise pacing and performance in the underwater sections. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Health, Training and Performance in Aquatic Activities and Exercises)
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11 pages, 352 KiB  
Article
Psychological and Physiological Features Associated with Swimming Performance
by Vicente Javier Clemente-Suárez, Juan Pedro Fuentes-García, Ricardo J. Fernandes and João Paulo Vilas-Boas
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(9), 4561; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18094561 - 25 Apr 2021
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 4515
Abstract
Background: The aim of the present research was to study the psychological and physiological features associated with aerobic and anaerobic performance in trained swimmers. Methods: A correlation and stepwise regression analyses were conducted with the data obtained in a RESTQ-76 sport questionnaire, a [...] Read more.
Background: The aim of the present research was to study the psychological and physiological features associated with aerobic and anaerobic performance in trained swimmers. Methods: A correlation and stepwise regression analyses were conducted with the data obtained in a RESTQ-76 sport questionnaire, a heart rate variability test, and an anaerobic and aerobic swimming performance efforts of 20 swimmers. Results: Aerobic performance correlated, principally, with parameters related to parasympathetic modulation measured in the frequency and time domains of the heart rate variability (LF/HF r: −0.806, p < 0.001; NN50 r: 0.937, p < 0.001). Swimmers’ anaerobic performance correlated to psychological features (low stress r: 0.526, p: 0.025, and high fatigue r: −0.506, p: 0.032). Conclusion: Swimming performance presented different psychological and physiological features depending on the probe characteristic. Specifically, swimmers’ anaerobic performance was associated with psychological features (low stress and high fatigue perception) and aerobic performance with physiological features (high parasympathetic modulation). This information could help coaches to know the variables to control in their swimmers, depending on the probe in which they compete (anaerobic or aerobic). Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Health, Training and Performance in Aquatic Activities and Exercises)
13 pages, 1129 KiB  
Article
Aerobic Continuous and Interval Training under Hypoxia Enhances Endurance Exercise Performance with Hemodynamic and Autonomic Nervous System Function in Amateur Male Swimmers
by Sung-Woo Kim, Won-Sang Jung, Jeong-Weon Kim, Sang-Seok Nam and Hun-Young Park
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(8), 3944; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18083944 - 9 Apr 2021
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3473
Abstract
Hypoxic training is often performed by competitive swimmers to enhance their performance in normoxia. However, the beneficial effects of aerobic continuous and interval training under hypoxia on hemodynamic function, autonomic nervous system (ANS) function, and endurance exercise performance remain controversial. Here we investigated [...] Read more.
Hypoxic training is often performed by competitive swimmers to enhance their performance in normoxia. However, the beneficial effects of aerobic continuous and interval training under hypoxia on hemodynamic function, autonomic nervous system (ANS) function, and endurance exercise performance remain controversial. Here we investigated whether six weeks of aerobic continuous and interval training under hypoxia can improve hematological parameters, hemodynamic function, ANS function, and endurance exercise performance versus normoxia in amateur male swimmers. Twenty amateur male swimmers were equally assigned to the hypoxic training group or normoxic training group and evaluated before and after six weeks of training. Aerobic continuous and interval training in the hypoxia showed a more significantly improved hemodynamic function (heart rate, −653.4 vs. −353.7 beats/30 min; oxygen uptake, −62.45 vs. −16.22 mL/kg/30 min; stroke volume index, 197.66 vs. 52.32 mL/30 min) during submaximal exercise, ANS function (root mean square of successive differences, 10.15 vs. 3.32 ms; total power, 0.72 vs. 0.20 ms2; low-frequency/high-frequency ratio, −0.173 vs. 0.054), and endurance exercise performance (maximal oxygen uptake, 5.57 vs. 2.26 mL/kg/min; 400-m time trial record, −20.41 vs. −7.91 s) than in the normoxia. These indicate that hypoxic training composed of aerobic continuous and interval exercise improves the endurance exercise performance of amateur male swimmers with better hemodynamic function and ANS function. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Health, Training and Performance in Aquatic Activities and Exercises)
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12 pages, 1039 KiB  
Article
Key Performance Indicators Related to Strength, Endurance, Flexibility, Anthropometrics, and Swimming Performance for Competitive Aquatic Lifesaving
by Daniela Reichmuth, Bjørn Harald Olstad and Dennis-Peter Born
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(7), 3454; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18073454 - 26 Mar 2021
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 5355
Abstract
The aim of the study was to investigate key performance indicators for the individual pool-based disciplines of competitive lifesaving regarding strength, flexibility, sprint and endurance swimming performance, anthropometric characteristics, and technical skills specific to competitive lifesaving. Data were collected from Swiss national team [...] Read more.
The aim of the study was to investigate key performance indicators for the individual pool-based disciplines of competitive lifesaving regarding strength, flexibility, sprint and endurance swimming performance, anthropometric characteristics, and technical skills specific to competitive lifesaving. Data were collected from Swiss national team members (seven males: age 19 ± 2 yrs, body mass 77 ± 11 kg, body height 177 ± 7 cm and seven females age 21 ± 5 yrs, body mass 64 ± 6 kg, body height 171 ± 4 cm) competing at the 2019 European lifesaving championships. Potential key performance indicators were assessed with race times derived from the 2019 long-course season using Spearman’s correlation coefficient. Large and significant correlations showed that sprint, i.e., 50 m freestyle performance (r ≥ 0.770), was related to race time of all pool-based disciplines, rather than endurance swimming performance. Additionally, significant correlations revealed upper body strength, i.e., bench press (r ≥ −0.644) and pull (r ≥ −0.697), and leg strength (r ≥ −0.627) as key performance indicators. Importance of the lifesaving-specific skills, anthropometric characteristics, and core strength varied between the disciplines. Flexibility was not significantly related to race times of competitive lifesaving. The present study showed that sprint swimming performance, upper body, and leg strength are particularly important for competitive lifesaving. As other physical and technical requirements varied between the pool-based disciplines, coaches may use the present key performance indicators to establish training guidelines and conditioning programs as well as prioritize skill acquisition in training to specifically prepare athletes for their main disciplines. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Health, Training and Performance in Aquatic Activities and Exercises)
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8 pages, 1151 KiB  
Article
A Comparison between Elite Swimmers and Kayakers on Upper Body Push and Pull Strength and Power Performance
by Sandro Bartolomei, Giorgio Gatta and Matteo Cortesi
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17(22), 8301; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17228301 - 10 Nov 2020
Viewed by 2480
Abstract
The aim of the present study was to compare the load-power curve expressed at bench press (PR) and prone bench pull (PU) between elite swimmers and kayakers. Another aim was to calculate the strength and power PR/PU ratio in the same populations. Fifteen [...] Read more.
The aim of the present study was to compare the load-power curve expressed at bench press (PR) and prone bench pull (PU) between elite swimmers and kayakers. Another aim was to calculate the strength and power PR/PU ratio in the same populations. Fifteen elite swimmers (SW: age = 23.8 ± 2.9 y; body mass = 82.8 ± 5.6 kg; body height = 184.1 ± 4.6 cm) and 13 elite kayakers (KA: age = 23.8 ± 2.9 y; body mass = 91.0 ± 3.5 kg; body height = 180.1 ± 5.4 cm) were assessed for PR 1RM and PU 1RM. They were then assessed for power produced at 40, 60 and 80% of 1RM in both PR and PU. The area under the load-power curve (AUC) and PR/PU ratios were calculated for both the SW and KA groups. The KA group showed significantly higher PR1RM (+18.2%; p = 0.002) and PU1RM (+25.7%; p < 0.001) compared to the SW group. Significant group differences were also detected for PUAUC (p < 0.001) and for the PR/PU power ratio (p < 0.001). No significant group differences were detected for PRAUC (p = 0.605) and for the PR/PU strength ratio (p = 0.065; 0.87 and 0.82 in SW and KA, respectively). The present findings indicate that elite KA were stronger and more powerful than elite SW in the upper body. Not consistently with other athletic populations, both KA and SW athletes were stronger and more powerful in upper body pull compared to push moves. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Health, Training and Performance in Aquatic Activities and Exercises)
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16 pages, 821 KiB  
Article
Key Factors Related to Short Course 100 m Breaststroke Performance
by Bjørn Harald Olstad, Henrik Wathne and Tomohiro Gonjo
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17(17), 6257; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17176257 - 27 Aug 2020
Cited by 30 | Viewed by 6185
Abstract
Background and aim: To identify kinematic variables related to short course 100 m breaststroke performance. Methods: An automatic race analysis system was utilized to obtain start (0–15 m), turn (5 m before the wall until 10 m out), finish (95–100 m), and clean [...] Read more.
Background and aim: To identify kinematic variables related to short course 100 m breaststroke performance. Methods: An automatic race analysis system was utilized to obtain start (0–15 m), turn (5 m before the wall until 10 m out), finish (95–100 m), and clean swimming (the rest of the race) segment times as well as cycle rate and cycle length during each swimming cycle from 15 male swimmers during a 100 m breaststroke race. A bivariate correlation and a partial correlation were employed to assess the relationship between each variable and swimming time. Results: Turns were the largest time contributor to the finishing time (44.30 ± 0.58%), followed by clean swimming (38.93 ± 0.50%), start (11.39 ± 0.22%), and finish (5.36 ± 0.18%). The finishing time was correlated (p < 0.001) with start segment time (r = 0.979), clean swimming time (r = 0.940), and 10 m turn-out time (r = 0.829). The clean swimming time was associated with the finishing time, but cycle rate and cycle length were not. In both start and turns, the peak velocity (i.e., take-off and push-off velocity) and the transition velocity were related to the segment time (r ≤ −0.673, p ≤ 0.006). Conclusions: Breaststroke training should focus on: (I) 15 m start with generating high take-off velocity, (II) improving clean swimming velocity by finding an optimal balance between cycle length and rate, (III) 10 m turn-out with maintaining a strong wall push-off, and (IV) establishing a high transition velocity from underwater to surface swimming. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Health, Training and Performance in Aquatic Activities and Exercises)
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10 pages, 977 KiB  
Article
Bioimpedance Vector Patterns Changes in Response to Swimming Training: An Ecological Approach
by Joana F. Reis, Catarina N. Matias, Francesco Campa, José P. Morgado, Paulo Franco, Pedro Quaresma, Nuno Almeida, Dalia Curto, Stefania Toselli and Cristina P. Monteiro
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17(13), 4851; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17134851 - 6 Jul 2020
Cited by 26 | Viewed by 3613
Abstract
Background and aim: Monitoring bioelectric phase angle (PhA) provides important information on the health and the condition of the athlete. Together with the vector length, PhA constitutes the bioimpedance vector analysis (BIVA) patterns, and their joint interpretation exceeds the limits of the evaluation [...] Read more.
Background and aim: Monitoring bioelectric phase angle (PhA) provides important information on the health and the condition of the athlete. Together with the vector length, PhA constitutes the bioimpedance vector analysis (BIVA) patterns, and their joint interpretation exceeds the limits of the evaluation of the PhA alone. The present investigation aimed to monitor changes in the BIVA patterns during a training macrocycle in swimmers, trying to ascertain if these parameters are sensitive to training load changes across a 13-week training period. Methods: Twelve national and international level swimmers (four females; eight males; 20.9 ± 1.9 years; with a competitive swimming background of 11.3 ± 1.8 years; undertaking 16–20 h of pool training and 4–5 h of dry-land training per week and 822.0 ± 59.0 International Swimming Federation (FINA) points) were evaluated for resistance (R) and reactance (Xc) using a single frequency phase sensitive bioimpedance device at the beginning of the macrocycle (M1), just before the beginning of the taper period (M2), and just before the main competition of the macrocycle (M3). At the three-time assessment points, swimmers also performed a 50 m all-out first stroke sprint with track start (T50 m) while time was recorded. Results: The results of the Hotelling T2 test showed a significant vector displacement due to simultaneous R and Xc changes (p < 0.001), where shifting from top to bottom along the major axis of the R-Xc graph from M1 to M2 was observed. From M2 to M3, a vector displacement up and left along the minor axis of the tolerance ellipses resulted in an increase in PhA (p < 0.01). The results suggest a gain in fluid with a decrease in cellular density from M1 to M2 due to decrements in R and Xc. Nevertheless, the reduced training load characterizing taper seemed to allow for an increase in PhA and, most importantly, an increase of Xc, thus demonstrating improved cellular health and physical condition, which was concomitant with a significant increase in the T50 m performance (p < 0.01). Conclusions: PhA, obtained by bioelectrical R and Xc, can be useful in monitoring the condition of swimmers preparing for competition. Monitoring BIVA patterns allows for an ecological approach to the swimmers’ health and condition assessment without resorting to equations to predict the related body composition variables. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Health, Training and Performance in Aquatic Activities and Exercises)
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Review

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14 pages, 1015 KiB  
Review
Periodization and Programming for Individual 400 m Medley Swimmers
by Francisco Hermosilla, José M. González-Rave, José Antonio Del Castillo and David B. Pyne
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(12), 6474; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18126474 - 15 Jun 2021
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 5738
Abstract
Knowledge in the scientific domain of individual medley (IM) swimming training over a competitive season is limited. The purpose of this study was to propose a detailed coaching framework incorporating the key elements of a periodized training regimen for a 400 m IM [...] Read more.
Knowledge in the scientific domain of individual medley (IM) swimming training over a competitive season is limited. The purpose of this study was to propose a detailed coaching framework incorporating the key elements of a periodized training regimen for a 400 m IM swimmer. This framework was based on the available coaching and scientific literature and the practical experience and expertise of the collaborating authors. The season has been divided in two or three macrocycles, further divided in three mesocycles each (six or nine mesocycles in total), in alignment with the two or three main competitions in each macrocycle. The principal training contents to develop during the season expressed in blood lactate zones are: aerobic training (~2 mmol·L−1), lactate threshold pace (~4 mmol·L−1) and VO2max (maximum oxygen uptake) (~6 mmol·L−1). Strength training should focus on maximum strength, power and speed endurance during the season. Altitude training camps can be placed strategically within the training season to promote physiological adaptation and improvements in performance. A well-constructed technical framework will permit development of training strategies for the 400 m IM swimmer to improve both training and competitive performance. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Health, Training and Performance in Aquatic Activities and Exercises)
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16 pages, 868 KiB  
Review
Race Analysis in Competitive Swimming: A Narrative Review
by Tomohiro Gonjo and Bjørn Harald Olstad
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(1), 69; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18010069 - 24 Dec 2020
Cited by 41 | Viewed by 10484
Abstract
Researchers have quantified swimming races for several decades to provide objective information on race strategy and characteristics. The purpose of the present review was to summarize knowledge established in the literature and current issues in swimming race analysis. A systematic search of the [...] Read more.
Researchers have quantified swimming races for several decades to provide objective information on race strategy and characteristics. The purpose of the present review was to summarize knowledge established in the literature and current issues in swimming race analysis. A systematic search of the literature for the current narrative review was conducted in September 2020 using Web of Science, SPORTDiscus (via EBSCO), and PubMed. After examining 321 studies, 22 articles were included in the current review. Most studies divided the race into the start, clean swimming, turn, and/or finish segments; however, the definition of each segment varied, especially for the turn. Ideal definitions for the start and turn-out seemed to differ depending on the stroke styles and swimmers’ level. Many studies have focused on either 100 m or 200 m events with the four strokes (butterfly, backstroke, breaststroke, and freestyle). Contrastingly, there were few or no studies for 50 m, long-distance, individual medley, and relay events. The number of studies examining races for short course, junior and Paralympic swimmers were also very limited. Future studies should focus on those with limited evidence as well as race analysis outside competitions in which detailed kinematic and physiological analyses are possible. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Health, Training and Performance in Aquatic Activities and Exercises)
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Other

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19 pages, 954 KiB  
Systematic Review
Prevalence and Impact of the Relative Age Effect on Competition Performance in Swimming: A Systematic Review
by Jorge Lorenzo-Calvo, Alfonso de la Rubia, Daniel Mon-López, Monica Hontoria-Galán, Moises Marquina and Santiago Veiga
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(20), 10561; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph182010561 - 9 Oct 2021
Cited by 14 | Viewed by 3804
Abstract
This systematic review aimed to examine the prevalence of the relative age effect (RAE) in swimming and its impact on competition performance according to different types of interacting constraints. A systematic literature search, following the PRISMA guidelines for preparing systematic reviews, was performed [...] Read more.
This systematic review aimed to examine the prevalence of the relative age effect (RAE) in swimming and its impact on competition performance according to different types of interacting constraints. A systematic literature search, following the PRISMA guidelines for preparing systematic reviews, was performed through four electronic databases, and nine studies met the inclusion criteria. The quality of the selected studies was evaluated using STROBE, and an average score of 16.2 points was obtained. In these studies, the prevalence of the RAE in swimming was observed in more than half (58.65%) of the participants analysed, and the effect of the RAE was more accentuated in young categories (decreased as age increased and was inverted in older ones) and in male swimmers (double that in female swimmers).The impact of the RAE on competitive performance appeared to be related to the strength demands of the event, as the performance in simultaneous strokes, in shorter events, and of swimmers in the postadolescence period seems to be more affected by the RAE. These results indicate that the RAE in competitive swimming relies on individual and environmental (the swimmer’s age group and gender) but also task (the competitive events) determinants or limitations. This should serve as a guide for a more effective design of selection and development procedures for young athletes. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Health, Training and Performance in Aquatic Activities and Exercises)
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12 pages, 625 KiB  
Systematic Review
Effects of Dry-Land Training Programs on Swimming Turn Performance: A Systematic Review
by Francisco Hermosilla, Ross Sanders, Fernando González-Mohíno, Inmaculada Yustres and José M González-Rave
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(17), 9340; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18179340 - 3 Sep 2021
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 5363
Abstract
Swimming coaches have prescribed dry-land training programs over the years to improve the overall swimming performance (starts, clean swimming, turns and finish). The main aim of the present systematic review was to examine the effects of dry-land strength and conditioning programs on swimming [...] Read more.
Swimming coaches have prescribed dry-land training programs over the years to improve the overall swimming performance (starts, clean swimming, turns and finish). The main aim of the present systematic review was to examine the effects of dry-land strength and conditioning programs on swimming turns. Four online databases were scrutinised, data were extracted using the Preferred PRISMA guidelines and the PEDro scale was applied. A total of 1259 articles were retrieved from database searches. From the 19 studies which were full-text evaluated, six studies were included in the review process. The review indicated that plyometric, strength, ballistic and core training programs were implemented for improving swimming turn performance. Strength, ballistic and plyometric training focusing on neural enhancement seem to be effective for improving swimming turn performance. The data related to training of the core were not conclusive. Coaches should consider incorporating exercises focusing on improving the neuromuscular factor of the leg-extensor muscles into their daily dry-land training programs. More researches are needed to provide a better understanding of the training methods effects and training organisations for improving swimming turn performance. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Health, Training and Performance in Aquatic Activities and Exercises)
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1 pages, 239 KiB  
Erratum
Erratum: Hołub et al. Predicting Breaststroke and Butterfly Stroke Results in Swimming Based on Olympics History. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 6621
by Maciej Hołub, Arkadiusz Stanula, Jakub Baron, Wojciech Głyk, Thomas Rosemann and Beat Knechtle
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(16), 8401; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18168401 - 9 Aug 2021
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1620
Abstract
In the original article [...] Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Health, Training and Performance in Aquatic Activities and Exercises)
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