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COVID-19: Wastewater-Based Epidemiology

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A special issue of International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health (ISSN 1660-4601). This special issue belongs to the section "Water Science and Technology".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (28 February 2022) | Viewed by 35797

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Zeynep Cetecioglu Gurol

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Guest Editor

Department of Chemical Engineering, KTH Royal Institute of Technology, SE-100 44 Stockholm, Sweden
Interests: microbial ecology; wastewater treatment; resource recovery; evironmental biotechnology

Dr. Gianluigi Buttiglieri

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Guest Editor

Catalan Institute for Water Research, ICRA, 17003 Girona, Spain
Interests: wastewater treatment and reuse; circular economy; nature based solution; organic micropollutants

Dr. Vanessa Moresco

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Guest Editor

Biological and Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Natural Sciences, University of Stirling, FK9 4LA, Stirling, UK
Interests: human pathogens in the aquatic environment; persistence and inactivation; water security

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The COVID-19 outbreak is caused by the SARS-CoV-2 virus, detected in China in December 2019. The World Health Organization (WHO) upgraded the status of this outbreak from epidemic to pandemic on March 11, 2020, requiring additional and urgent efforts on this topic from the wider scientific community.

By evaluating wastewater composition in terms of residues or transformation, wastewater-based epidemiology may help in evaluating people’s habits, such as diet, use of pharmaceutical compounds, abuse of drugs, specific diseases, etc. Additionally, this approach can provide valuable information on the prevalence of different human pathogens, including the novel SARS-CoV2. It may represent a cost-effective alternative to testing a large number of random individuals in the population. Moreover, it can be used as an early warning system for SARS-CoV-2 virus, measuring whether the number of virus infections will increase again in a specific area and/or monitoring the spreading trend of the virus in the population over time.

Accordingly, this Special Issue targets:

SARS-CoV-2 presence in different water matrices such as wastewater, sludge, freshwater, groundwater, etc.
Removal in wastewater treatment plants, including both water and sludge treatment lines
Virus concentration and detection methods: developing new approaches and benchmarking existing methods
Approaches for early warning systems
Modelling, such as Quantitative Microbiological Risk Assessment (QMRA) analysis and artificial intelligence to link wastewater data and infected population data

Dr. Zeynep Cetecioglu Gurol
Dr. Gianluigi Buttiglieri
Dr. Vanessa Moresco
Guest Editors

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Keywords

water and wastewater based epidemiology
sars-cov-2
early warning system
raw wastewater
removal
sewage sludge
fresh water or other water matrices

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Published Papers (8 papers)

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Research

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12 pages, 2502 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Statistical Analysis of SARS-CoV-2 Using Wastewater-Based Data of Stockholm, Sweden

by Aashlesha Chekkala, Merve Atasoy, Cecilia Williams and Zeynep Cetecioglu

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2023, 20(5), 4181; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20054181 - 26 Feb 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2162

Abstract

An approach based on wastewater epidemiology can be used to monitor the COVID-19 pandemic by assessing the gene copy number of SARS-CoV-2 in wastewater. In the present study, we statistically analyzed such data from six inlets of three wastewater treatment plants, covering six regions of Stockholm, Sweden, collected over an approximate year period (week 16 of 2020 to week 22 of 2021). SARS-CoV-2 gene copy number and population-based biomarker PMMoV, as well as clinical data, such as the number of positive cases, intensive care unit numbers, and deaths, were analyzed statistically using correlations and principal component analysis (PCA). Despite the population differences, the PCA for the Stockholm dataset showed that the case numbers are well grouped across wastewater treatment plants. Furthermore, when considering the data from the whole of Stockholm, the wastewater characteristics (flow rate m³/day, PMMoV Ct value, and SARS-CoV gene copy number) were significantly correlated with the public health agency’s report of SARS-CoV-2 infection rates (0.419 to 0.95, p-value < 0.01). However, while the PCA results showed that the case numbers for each wastewater treatment plant were well grouped concerning PC1 (37.3%) and PC2 (19.67%), the results from the correlation analysis for the individual wastewater treatment plants showed varied trends. SARS-CoV-2 fluctuations can be accurately predicted through statistical analyses of wastewater-based epidemiology, as demonstrated in this study. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue COVID-19: Wastewater-Based Epidemiology)

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24 pages, 6904 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Multifaceted Assessment of Wastewater-Based Epidemiology for SARS-CoV-2 in Selected Urban Communities in Davao City, Philippines: A Pilot Study

by Maria Catherine B. Otero, Lyre Anni E. Murao, Mary Antoinette G. Limen, Daniel Rev A. Caalim, Paul Lorenzo A. Gaite, Michael G. Bacus, Joan T. Acaso, Refeim M. Miguel, Kahlil Corazo, Ineke E. Knot, Homer Sajonia II, Francis L. de los Reyes III, Caroline Marie B. Jaraula, Emmanuel S. Baja and Dann Marie N. Del Mundo

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19(14), 8789; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19148789 - 19 Jul 2022

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 6522

Abstract

Over 60 countries have integrated wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) in their COVID-19 surveillance programs, focusing on wastewater treatment plants (WWTP). In this paper, we piloted the assessment of SARS-CoV-2 WBE as a complementary public health surveillance method in susceptible communities in a highly urbanized city without WWTP in the Philippines by exploring the extraction and detection methods, evaluating the contribution of physico-chemical–anthropogenic factors, and attempting whole-genome sequencing (WGS). Weekly wastewater samples were collected from sewer pipes or creeks in six communities with moderate-to-high risk of COVID-19 transmission, as categorized by the City Government of Davao from November to December 2020. Physico-chemical properties of the wastewater and anthropogenic conditions of the sites were noted. Samples were concentrated using a PEG-NaCl precipitation method and analyzed by RT-PCR to detect the SARS-CoV-2 N, RdRP, and E genes. A subset of nine samples were subjected to WGS using the Minion sequencing platform. SARS-CoV-2 RNA was detected in twenty-two samples (91.7%) regardless of the presence of new cases. Cycle threshold values correlated with RNA concentration and attack rate. The lack of a sewershed map in the sampled areas highlights the need to integrate this in the WBE planning. A combined analysis of wastewater physico-chemical parameters such as flow rate, surface water temperature, salinity, dissolved oxygen, and total dissolved solids provided insights on the ideal sampling location, time, and method for WBE, and their impact on RNA recovery. The contribution of fecal matter in the wastewater may also be assessed through the coliform count and in the context of anthropogenic conditions in the area. Finally, our attempt on WGS detected single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in wastewater which included clinically reported and newly identified mutations in the Philippines. This exploratory report provides a contextualized framework for applying WBE surveillance in low-sanitation areas. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue COVID-19: Wastewater-Based Epidemiology)

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13 pages, 1747 KiB

Open AccessArticle

High Sensitivity and Specificity of Dormitory-Level Wastewater Surveillance for COVID-19 during Fall Semester 2020 at Syracuse University, New York

by Alex Godinez, Dustin Hill, Bryan Dandaraw, Hyatt Green, Pruthvi Kilaru, Frank Middleton, Sythong Run, Brittany L. Kmush and David A. Larsen

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19(8), 4851; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19084851 - 16 Apr 2022

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 2626

Abstract

A residential building’s wastewater presents a potential non-invasive method of surveilling numerous infectious diseases, including SARS-CoV-2. We analyzed wastewater from 16 different residential locations at Syracuse University (Syracuse, NY, USA) during fall semester 2020, testing for SARS-CoV-2 RNA twice weekly and compared the presence of clinical COVID-19 cases to detection of the viral RNA in wastewater. The sensitivity of wastewater surveillance to correctly identify dormitories with a case of COVID-19 ranged from 95% (95% confidence interval [CI] = 76–100%) on the same day as the case was diagnosed to 73% (95% CI = 53–92%), with 7 days lead time of wastewater. The positive predictive value ranged from 20% (95% CI = 13–30%) on the same day as the case was diagnosed to 50% (95% CI = 40–60%) with 7 days lead time. The specificity of wastewater surveillance to correctly identify dormitories without a case of COVID-19 ranged from 60% (95% CI = 52–67%) on the day of the wastewater sample to 67% (95% CI = 58–74%) with 7 days lead time. The negative predictive value ranged from 99% (95% CI = 95–100%) on the day of the wastewater sample to 84% (95% CI = 77–91%) with 7 days lead time. Wastewater surveillance for SARS-CoV-2 at the building level is highly accurate in determining if residents have a COVID-19 infection. Particular benefit is derived from negative wastewater results that can confirm a building is COVID-19 free. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue COVID-19: Wastewater-Based Epidemiology)

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20 pages, 3341 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Longitudinal and Long-Term Wastewater Surveillance for COVID-19: Infection Dynamics and Zoning of Urban Community

by Athmakuri Tharak, Harishankar Kopperi, Manupati Hemalatha, Uday Kiran, Gokulan C. G., Shivranjani Moharir, Rakesh K. Mishra and S. Venkata Mohan

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19(5), 2697; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19052697 - 25 Feb 2022

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2965

Abstract

Wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) is emerging as a potential approach to study the infection dynamics of SARS-CoV-2 at a community level. Periodic sewage surveillance can act as an indicative tool to predict the early surge of pandemic within the community and understand the dynamics of infection and, thereby, facilitates for proper healthcare management. In this study, we performed a long-term epidemiological surveillance to assess the SARS-CoV-2 spread in domestic sewage over one year (July 2020 to August 2021) by adopting longitudinal sampling to represent a selected community (~2.5 lakhs population). Results indicated temporal dynamics in the viral load. A consistent amount of viral load was observed during the months from July 2020 to November 2020, suggesting a higher spread of the viral infection among the community, followed by a decrease in the subsequent two months (December 2020 and January 2021). A marginal increase was observed during February 2021, hinting at the onset of the second wave (from March 2021) that reached it speak in April 2021. Dynamics of the community infection rates were calculated based on the viral gene copies to assess the severity of COVID-19 spread. With the ability to predict the infection spread, longitudinal WBE studies also offer the prospect of zoning specific areas based on the infection rates. Zoning of the selected community based on the infection rates assists health management to plan and manage the infection in an effective way. WBE promotes clinical inspection with simultaneous disease detection and management, in addition to an advance warning signal to anticipate outbreaks, with respect to the slated community/zones, to tackle, prepare for and manage the pandemic. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue COVID-19: Wastewater-Based Epidemiology)

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9 pages, 2131 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Spatial and Temporal Trends of SARS-CoV-2 RNA from Wastewater Treatment Plants over 6 Weeks in Cape Town, South Africa

by Renée Street, Angela Mathee, Noluxabiso Mangwana, Stephanie Dias, Jyoti Rajan Sharma, Pritika Ramharack, Johan Louw, Tarylee Reddy, Ludwig Brocker, Swastika Surujlal-Naicker, Natacha Berkowitz, Mokaba Shirley Malema, Sizwe Nkambule, Candice Webster, Nomfundo Mahlangeni, Huub Gelderblom, Mongezi Mdhluli, Glenda Gray, Christo Muller and Rabia Johnson

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(22), 12085; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph182212085 - 17 Nov 2021

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 4017

Abstract

Recent scientific trends have revealed that the collection and analysis of data on the occurrence and fate of SARS-CoV-2 in wastewater may serve as an early warning system for COVID-19. In South Africa, the first COVID-19 epicenter emerged in the Western Cape Province. The City of Cape Town, located in the Western Cape Province, has approximately 4 million inhabitants. This study reports on the monitoring of SARS-CoV-2 RNA in the wastewater of the City of Cape Town’s wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) during the peak of the epidemic. During this period, the highest overall median viral RNA signal was observed in week 1 (9200 RNA copies/mL) and declined to 127 copies/mL in week 6. The overall decrease in the amount of detected viral SARS-CoV-2 RNA over the 6-week study period was associated with a declining number of newly identified COVID-19 cases in the city. The SARS-CoV-2 early warning system has now been established to detect future waves of COVID-19. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue COVID-19: Wastewater-Based Epidemiology)

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Review

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22 pages, 2529 KiB

Open AccessReview

A Review of the Presence of SARS-CoV-2 in Wastewater: Transmission Risks in Mexico

by Mayerlin Sandoval Herazo, Graciela Nani, Florentina Zurita, Carlos Nakase, Sergio Zamora, Luis Carlos Sandoval Herazo and Erick Arturo Betanzo-Torres

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19(14), 8354; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19148354 - 8 Jul 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2638

Abstract

The appearance of SARS-CoV-2 represented a new health threat to humanity and affected millions of people; the transmission of this virus occurs through different routes, and one of them recently under debate in the international community is its possible incorporation and spread by sewage. Therefore, the present work’s research objectives are to review the presence of SARS-CoV-2 in wastewater throughout the world and to analyze the coverage of wastewater treatment in Mexico to determine if there is a correlation between the positive cases of COVID-19 and the percentages of treated wastewater in Mexico as well as to investigate the evidence of possible transmission by aerosol sand untreated wastewater. Methodologically, a quick search of scientific literature was performed to identify evidence the presence of SARS-CoV-2 RNA (ribonucleic acid) in wastewater in four international databases. The statistical information of the positive cases of COVID-19 was obtained from data from the Health Secretary of the Mexican Government and the Johns Hopkins Coronavirus Resource Center. The information from the wastewater treatment plants in Mexico was obtained from official information of the National Water Commission of Mexico. The results showed sufficient evidence that SARS-CoV-2 remains alive in municipal wastewater in Mexico. Our analysis indicates that there is a low but significant correlation between the percentage of treated water and positive cases of coronavirus r = −0.385, with IC (95%) = (−0.647, −0.042) and p = 0.030; this result should be taken with caution because wastewater is not a transmission mechanism, but this finding is useful to highlight the need to increase the percentage of treated wastewater and to do it efficiently. In conclusions, the virus is present in untreated wastewater, and the early detection of SAR-CoV-2 could serve as a bioindicator method of the presence of the virus. This could be of great help to establish surveillance measures by zones to take preventive actions, which to date have not been considered by the Mexican health authorities. Unfortunately, wastewater treatment systems in Mexico are very fragile, and coverage is limited to urban areas and non-existent in rural areas. Furthermore, although the probability of contagion is relatively low, it can be a risk for wastewater treatment plant workers and people who are close to them. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue COVID-19: Wastewater-Based Epidemiology)

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10 pages, 631 KiB

Open AccessReview

Utilization of SARS-CoV-2 Wastewater Surveillance in Africa—A Rapid Review

by Tafadzwa Dzinamarira, Grant Murewanhema, Patrick Gad Iradukunda, Roda Madziva, Helena Herrera, Diego F. Cuadros, Nigel Tungwarara, Itai Chitungo and Godfrey Musuka

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19(2), 969; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19020969 - 15 Jan 2022

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 4200

Abstract

Wastewater-based epidemiology for SARS-CoV-2 RNA detection in wastewater is desirable for understanding COVID-19 in settings where financial resources and diagnostic facilities for mass individual testing are severely limited. We conducted a rapid review to map research evidence on the utilization of SARS-CoV-2 wastewater surveillance in Africa. We searched PubMed, Google Scholar, and the World Health Organization library databases for relevant reports, reviews, and primary observational studies. Eight studies met the inclusion criteria. Narrative synthesis of the findings from included primary studies revealed the testing methodologies utilized and that detected amount of SARS-CoV-2 viral RNA correlated with the number of new cases in the studied areas. The included reviews revealed the epidemiological significance and environmental risks of SARS-CoV-2 wastewater. Wastewater surveillance data at the community level can be leveraged for the rapid assessment of emerging threats and aid pandemic preparedness. Our rapid review revealed a glaring gap in the primary literature on SARS-CoV-2 wastewater surveillance on the continent, and accelerated and adequate investment into research is urgently needed to address this gap. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue COVID-19: Wastewater-Based Epidemiology)

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19 pages, 735 KiB

Open AccessReview

Wastewater-Based Epidemiology (WBE) and Viral Detection in Polluted Surface Water: A Valuable Tool for COVID-19 Surveillance—A Brief Review

by Maria de Lourdes Aguiar-Oliveira, Aline Campos, Aline R. Matos, Caroline Rigotto, Adriana Sotero-Martins, Paulo F. P. Teixeira and Marilda M. Siqueira

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17(24), 9251; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17249251 - 10 Dec 2020

Cited by 72 | Viewed by 9142

Abstract

SARS-CoV-2 is the causative agent of the current COVID-19 pandemic. Disease clinical manifestations range from asymptomatic to severe multiple organ damage. SARS-CoV-2 uses ACE2 as a cellular receptor, which is abundantly expressed in the small intestine, allowing viral replication in the gastrointestinal tract. Viral RNA has been detected in the stool of COVID-19 patients and viable viruses had been isolated in some of these samples. Thus, a putative role of SARS-CoV-2 fecal-oral transmission has been argued. SARS-CoV-2 is shed in human excreta and further disposed in the sewerage or in the environment, in poor basic sanitation settings. Wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) is a valuable population level approach for monitoring viral pathogens and has been successfully used in different contexts. This review summarizes the current global experience on SARS-CoV-2 WBE in distinct continents and viral detection in polluted surface water. The advantages and concerns of this strategy for SARS-CoV-2 surveillance are discussed. Outcomes suggest that WBE is a valuable early warning alert and a helpful complementary surveillance tool to subside public health response, to tailor containment and mitigation measures and to determine target populations for testing. In poor sanitation settings, contaminated rivers could be alternatively used as a source for environmental surveillance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue COVID-19: Wastewater-Based Epidemiology)

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