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Transglutaminase 2 and Cellular Functions

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A special issue of International Journal of Molecular Sciences (ISSN 1422-0067). This special issue belongs to the section "Molecular Pathology, Diagnostics, and Therapeutics".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (20 September 2024) | Viewed by 15536

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Dr. Carlo Mischiati

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Clinical Biochemistry Laboratory, Department of Neurosciences and Rehabilitation, Faculty of Medicine, Pharmacy and Prevention, University of Ferrara, Via Luigi Borsari 46, Ferrara, Italy
Interests: biochemistry; molecular biology; medical genetics
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Prof. Dr. Simone Beninati

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Department of Biology, University of Tor Vergata, Rome, Italy
Interests: experimental oncology; biochemistry
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Dear Colleagues,

Transglutaminase type 2 (TG2) is a calcium-dependent enzyme, ubiquitously expressed belonging to the transglutaminase family (EC 2.3.2.13). TG2 catalyzes specific post-translational modifications of proteins through a transamidation reaction. It is also involved in various additional enzymatic activities, such as guanine nucleotide binding and hydrolysis, protein kinase, and disulfide isomerase activities.

TG2 is a widely studied enzyme and the greater the understanding of it the more new implications emerge. Since 2000, over 2400 papers have demonstrated that TG2 plays a central role in several biological mechanisms and cellular functions, such as cell proliferation, apoptosis, and differentiation in various cell types. The protein itself as well as its enzymatic activity are determining factors for the proliferation and invasion of tumor cells, and for the response of the tumor to chemotherapy. It was implicated in a growing variety of altered health states, not just celiac disease, but also neurodegenerative diseases, multiple sclerosis, and central nervous system injuries, among others.

The knowledge of the mechanisms through which TG2 participates in the various cellular functions, in particular those that trigger apoptosis or pathogenesis, could allow the design of future therapeutic applications. In this regard, the study of the biological effects of modulating molecules of the enzymatic activity of TG2 and/or of the effectors that are part of the cascade of events triggered arouses enormous interest. For example, biogenic polyamines, which act as natural substrates, have been shown to limit, and in some cases block, the enzymatic activity of TG2, resulting in possible use to reduce the onset of pathologies, such as senile cataracts.

Based on these premises, this monograph aims to broaden the knowledge of TG2 in health conditions and pathological states and the cellular functions in which it is involved. Studies that clarify the molecular mechanisms triggered by TG2, and also those focused on the identification of possible natural or synthetic modulators of the TG2 activity, are particularly welcome.

You may choose our Joint Special Issue in Medical Sciences.

Prof. Dr. Carlo Mischiati
Prof. Dr. Simone Beninati
Guest Editors

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Published Papers (8 papers)

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Research

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24 pages, 4258 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Mesenchymal Transglutaminase 2 Activates Epithelial ADAM17: Link to G-Protein-Coupled Receptor 56 (ADGRG1) Signalling

by Lea Bauer, Jessica Edwards, Andreas Heil, Sharon Dewitt, Heike Biebermann, Daniel Aeschlimann and Vera Knäuper

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2024, 25(4), 2329; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms25042329 - 16 Feb 2024

Viewed by 1662

Abstract

A wound healing model was developed to elucidate the role of mesenchymal-matrix-associated transglutaminase 2 (TG2) in keratinocyte re-epithelialisation. TG2 drives keratinocyte migratory responses by activation of disintegrin and metalloproteinase 17 (ADAM17). We demonstrate that epidermal growth factor (EGF) receptor ligand shedding leads to EGFR-transactivation and subsequent rapid keratinocyte migration on TG2-positive ECM. In contrast, keratinocyte migration was impaired in TG2 null conditions. We show that keratinocytes express the adhesion G-protein-coupled receptor, ADGRG1 (GPR56), which has been proposed as a TG2 receptor. Using ADAM17 activation as a readout and luciferase reporter assays, we demonstrate that TG2 activates GPR56. GPR56 activation by TG2 reached the same level as observed with an agonistic N-GPR56 antibody. The N-terminal GPR56 domain is required for TG2-regulated signalling response, as the constitutively active C-GPR56 receptor was not activated by TG2. Signalling required the C-terminal TG2 β-barrel domains and involved RhoA-associated protein kinase (ROCK) and ADAM17 activation, which was blocked by specific inhibitors. Cell surface binding of TG2 to the N-terminal GPR56 domain is rapid and is associated with TG2 and GPR56 endocytosis. TG2 and GPR56 represent a ligand receptor pair causing RhoA and EGFR transactivation. Furthermore, we determined a binding constant for the interaction of human TG2 with N-GPR56 and show for the first time that only the calcium-enabled “open” TG2 conformation associates with N-GPR56. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Transglutaminase 2 and Cellular Functions)

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18 pages, 3930 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Cell-Impermeable Inhibitors Confirm That Intracellular Human Transglutaminase 2 Is Responsible for the Transglutaminase-Associated Cancer Phenotype

by Eric W. J. Gates, Nicholas D. Calvert, Nicholas J. Cundy, Federica Brugnoli, Pauline Navals, Alexia Kirby, Nicoletta Bianchi, Gautam Adhikary, Adam J. Shuhendler, Richard L. Eckert and Jeffrey W. Keillor

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2023, 24(16), 12546; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms241612546 - 8 Aug 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2103

Abstract

Transglutaminase 2 (TG2) is a multifunctional enzyme primarily responsible for crosslinking proteins. Ubiquitously expressed in humans, TG2 can act either as a transamidase by crosslinking two substrates through formation of an N^ε(ɣ-glutaminyl)lysine bond or as an intracellular G-protein. These discrete roles are tightly regulated by both allosteric and environmental stimuli and are associated with dramatic changes in the conformation of the enzyme. The pleiotropic nature of TG2 and multi-faceted activities have resulted in TG2 being implicated in numerous disease pathologies including celiac disease, fibrosis, and cancer. Targeted TG2 therapies have not been selective for subcellular localization, such that currently no tools exist to selectively target extracellular over intracellular TG2. Herein, we have designed novel TG2-selective inhibitors that are not only highly potent and irreversible, but also cell impermeable, targeting only extracellular TG2. We have also further derivatized the scaffold to develop probes that are intrinsically fluorescent or bear an alkyne handle, which target both intra- and extracellular TG2, in order to facilitate cellular labelling and pull-down assays. The fluorescent probes were internalized and imaged in cellulo, and provide the first implicit experimental evidence that by comparison with their cell-impermeable analogues, it is specifically intracellular TG2, and presumably its G-protein activity, that contributes to transglutaminase-associated cancer progression. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Transglutaminase 2 and Cellular Functions)

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23 pages, 2742 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Biochemical and Functional Characterization of the Three Zebrafish Transglutaminases 2

by Manuel Lisetto, Mariagiulia Fattorini, Andrea Lanza, Marco Gerdol, Martin Griffin, Zhuo Wang, Fortunato Ferrara and Daniele Sblattero

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2023, 24(15), 12041; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms241512041 - 27 Jul 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1426

Abstract

Transglutaminase 2 (TG2) is a multifunctional protein widely distributed in various tissues and involved in many physiological and pathological processes. However, its actual role in biological processes is often controversial as TG2 shows different effects in these processes depending on its localization, cell type, or experimental conditions. We characterized the enzymatic and functional properties of TG2 proteins expressed in Danio rerio (zebrafish) to provide the basis for using this established animal model as a reliable tool to characterize TG2 functions in vivo. We confirmed the existence of three genes orthologous to human TG2 (zTGs2) in the zebrafish genome and their expression and function during embryonic development. We produced and purified the zTGs2s as recombinant proteins and showed that, like the human enzyme, zTGs2 catalyzes a Ca²⁺ dependent transamidation reaction that can be inhibited with TG2-specific inhibitors. In a cell model of human fibroblasts, we also demonstrated that zTGs2 can mediate RGD-independent cell adhesion in the extracellular environment. Finally, we transfected and selected zTGs2-overexpressing HEK293 cells and demonstrated that intracellular zTGs2 plays a very comparable protective/damaging role in the apoptotic process, as hTG2. Overall, our results suggest that zTGs2 proteins behave very similarly to the human ortholog and pave the way for future in vivo studies of TG2 functions in zebrafish. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Transglutaminase 2 and Cellular Functions)

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27 pages, 7540 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Transglutaminase 2 Facilitates Murine Wound Healing in a Strain-Dependent Manner

by Ting W. Yiu, Sara R. Holman, Xenia Kaidonis, Robert M. Graham and Siiri E. Iismaa

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2023, 24(14), 11475; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms241411475 - 14 Jul 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1533

Abstract

Transglutaminase 2 (TG2) plays a role in cellular processes that are relevant to wound healing, but to date no studies of wound healing in TG2 knockout mice have been reported. Here, using 129T2/SvEmsJ (129)- or C57BL/6 (B6)-backcrossed TG2 knockout mice, we show that TG2 facilitates murine wound healing in a strain-dependent manner. Early healing of in vivo cutaneous wounds and closure of in vitro scratch wounds in murine embryonic fibroblast (MEF) monolayers were delayed in 129, but not B6, TG2 knockouts, relative to their wild-type counterparts, with wound closure in 129 being faster than in B6 wild-types. A single dose of exogenous recombinant wild-type TG2 to 129 TG2^−/− mice or MEFs immediately post-wounding accelerated wound closure. Neutrophil and monocyte recruitment to 129 cutaneous wounds was not affected by Tgm2 deletion up to 5 days post-wounding. Tgm2 mRNA and TG2 protein abundance were higher in 129 than in B6 wild-types and increased in abundance following cutaneous and scratch wounding. Tgm1 and factor XIIA (F13A) mRNA abundance increased post-wounding, but there was no compensation by TG family members in TG2^−/− relative to TG2^+/+ mice in either strain before or after wounding. 129 TG2^+/+ MEF adhesion was greater and spreading was faster than that of B6 TG2^+/+ MEFs, and was dependent on syndecan binding in the presence, but not absence, of RGD inhibition of integrin binding. Adhesion and spreading of 129, but not B6, TG2^−/− MEFs was impaired relative to their wild-type counterparts and was accelerated by exogenous addition or transfection of TG2 protein or cDNA, respectively, and was independent of the transamidase or GTP-binding activity of TG2. Rho-family GTPase activation, central to cytoskeletal organization, was altered in 129 TG2^−/− MEFs, with delayed RhoA and earlier Rac1 activation than in TG2^+/+ MEFs. These findings indicate that the rate of wound healing is different between 129 and B6 mouse strains, correlating with TG2 abundance, and although not essential for wound healing, TG2 facilitates integrin- and syndecan-mediated RhoA- and Rac1-activation in fibroblasts to promote efficient wound contraction. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Transglutaminase 2 and Cellular Functions)

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18 pages, 3349 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Deletion of Transglutaminase 2 from Mouse Astrocytes Significantly Improves Their Ability to Promote Neurite Outgrowth on an Inhibitory Matrix

by Jacen Emerson, Thomas Delgado, Peter Girardi and Gail V. W. Johnson

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2023, 24(7), 6058; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms24076058 - 23 Mar 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2155

Abstract

Astrocytes are the primary support cells of the central nervous system (CNS) that help maintain the energetic requirements and homeostatic environment of neurons. CNS injury causes astrocytes to take on reactive phenotypes with an altered overall function that can range from supportive to harmful for recovering neurons. The characterization of reactive astrocyte populations is a rapidly developing field, and the underlying factors and signaling pathways governing which type of reactive phenotype that astrocytes take on are poorly understood. Our previous studies suggest that transglutaminase 2 (TG2) has an important role in determining the astrocytic response to injury. Selectively deleting TG2 from astrocytes improves functional outcomes after CNS injury and causes widespread changes in gene regulation, which is associated with its nuclear localization. To begin to understand how TG2 impacts astrocytic function, we used a neuron-astrocyte co-culture paradigm to compare the effects of TG2−/− and wild-type (WT) mouse astrocytes on neurite outgrowth and synapse formation. Neurons were grown on a control substrate or an injury-simulating matrix comprised of inhibitory chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans (CSPGs). Compared to WT astrocytes, TG2−/− astrocytes supported neurite outgrowth to a significantly greater extent only on the CSPG matrix, while synapse formation assays showed mixed results depending on the pre- and post-synaptic markers analyzed. We hypothesize that TG2 regulates the supportive functions of astrocytes in injury conditions by modulating gene expression through interactions with transcription factors and transcription complexes. Based on the results of a previous yeast two-hybrid screen for TG2 interactors, we further investigated the interaction of TG2 with Zbtb7a, a ubiquitously expressed transcription factor. Co-immunoprecipitation and colocalization analyses confirmed the interaction of TG2 and Zbtb7a in the nucleus of astrocytes. Overexpression or knockdown of Zbtb7a levels in WT and TG2−/− astrocytes revealed that Zbtb7a robustly influenced astrocytic morphology and the ability of astrocytes to support neuronal outgrowth, which was significantly modulated by the presence of TG2. These findings support our hypothesis that astrocytic TG2 acts as a transcriptional regulator to influence astrocytic function, with greater influence under injury conditions that increase its expression, and Zbtb7a likely contributes to the overall effects observed with astrocytic TG2 deletion. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Transglutaminase 2 and Cellular Functions)

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Review

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19 pages, 2943 KiB

Open AccessReview

Transglutaminase 1: Emerging Functions beyond Skin

by Sahar Ebrahimi Samani, Hideki Tatsukawa, Kiyotaka Hitomi and Mari T. Kaartinen

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2024, 25(19), 10306; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms251910306 - 25 Sep 2024

Viewed by 932

Abstract

Transglutaminase enzymes catalyze Ca²⁺- and thiol-dependent posttranslational modifications of glutamine-residues that include esterification, hydrolysis and transamidation, which results in covalent protein–protein crosslinking. Among the eight transglutaminase family members in mammals, transglutaminase 1 (TG1) plays a crucial role in skin barrier formation via crosslinking and insolubilizing proteins in keratinocytes. Despite this established function in skin, novel functions have begun merging in normal tissue homeostasis as well as in pathologies. This review summarizes our current understanding of the structure, activation, expression and activity patterns of TG1 and discusses its putative novel role in other tissues, such as in vascular integrity, and in diseases, such as cancer and fibrosis. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Transglutaminase 2 and Cellular Functions)

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25 pages, 4631 KiB

Open AccessReview

The Role of Transglutaminase 2 in Cancer: An Update

by Elisabetta Zaltron, Federica Vianello, Alessia Ruzza, Alberta Palazzo, Valentina Brillo, Ilaria Celotti, Matteo Scavezzon, Federica Rossin, Luigi Leanza and Filippo Severin

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2024, 25(5), 2797; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms25052797 - 28 Feb 2024

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3074

Abstract

Transglutaminase type 2 (TG2) is the most ubiquitously expressed and well characterized member of the transglutaminase family. It is a ubiquitous multifunctional enzyme implicated in the regulation of several cellular pathways that support the survival, death, and general homeostasis of eukaryotic cells. Due to its multiple localizations both inside and outside the cell, TG2 participates in the regulation of many crucial intracellular signaling cascades in a tissue- and cell-specific manner, making this enzyme an important player in disease development and progression. Moreover, TG2 is capable of modulating the tumor microenvironment, a process of dynamic tissue remodeling and biomechanical events, resulting in changes which influence tumor initiation, growth, and metastasis. Even if generally related to the Ca²⁺-dependent post-translational modification of proteins, a number of different biological functions have been ascribed to TG2, like those of a peptide isomerase, protein kinase, guanine nucleotide binder, and cytosolic–nuclear translocator. With respect to cancer, TG2′s role is controversial and highly debated; it has been described both as an anti- and pro-apoptotic factor and is linked to all the processes of tumorigenesis. However, numerous pieces of evidence support a tissue-specific role of TG2 so that it can assume both oncogenic and tumor-suppressive roles. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Transglutaminase 2 and Cellular Functions)

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23 pages, 1687 KiB

Open AccessReview

Pathogenetic Contributions and Therapeutic Implications of Transglutaminase 2 in Neurodegenerative Diseases

by Jun Liu and M. Maral Mouradian

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2024, 25(4), 2364; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms25042364 - 17 Feb 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1838

Abstract

Neurodegenerative diseases encompass a heterogeneous group of disorders that afflict millions of people worldwide. Characteristic protein aggregates are histopathological hallmark features of these disorders, including Amyloid β (Aβ)-containing plaques and tau-containing neurofibrillary tangles in Alzheimer’s disease, α-Synuclein (α-Syn)-containing Lewy bodies and Lewy neurites in Parkinson’s disease and dementia with Lewy bodies, and mutant huntingtin (mHTT) in nuclear inclusions in Huntington’s disease. These various aggregates are found in specific brain regions that are impacted by neurodegeneration and associated with clinical manifestations. Transglutaminase (TG2) (also known as tissue transglutaminase) is the most ubiquitously expressed member of the transglutaminase family with protein crosslinking activity. To date, Aβ, tau, α-Syn, and mHTT have been determined to be substrates of TG2, leading to their aggregation and implicating the involvement of TG2 in several pathophysiological events in neurodegenerative disorders. In this review, we summarize the biochemistry and physiologic functions of TG2 and describe recent advances in the pathogenetic role of TG2 in these diseases. We also review TG2 inhibitors tested in clinical trials and discuss recent TG2-targeting approaches, which offer new perspectives for the design of future highly potent and selective drugs with improved brain delivery as a disease-modifying treatment for neurodegenerative disorders. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Transglutaminase 2 and Cellular Functions)

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