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12 pages, 2708 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Influence of a Terminal Chlorine Substituent on the Kinetics and the Mechanism of the Solvolyses of n-Alkyl Chloroformates in Hydroxylic Solvents

by Malcolm J. D’Souza, Jeremy Wirick, Osama Mahmoud, Dennis N. Kevill and Jin Burm Kyong

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020, 21(12), 4387; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms21124387 - 19 Jun 2020

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 4575

Abstract

A previous study of the effect of a 2-chloro substituent on the rates and the mechanisms of the solvolysis of ethyl chloroformate is extended to the effect of a 3-chloro substituent on the previously studied solvolysis of propyl chloroformate and to the effect [...] Read more.

A previous study of the effect of a 2-chloro substituent on the rates and the mechanisms of the solvolysis of ethyl chloroformate is extended to the effect of a 3-chloro substituent on the previously studied solvolysis of propyl chloroformate and to the effect of a 4-chloro substituent on the here reported rates of solvolysis of butyl chloroformate. In each comparison, the influence of the chloro substituent is shown to be nicely consistent with the proposal, largely based on the application of the extended Grunwald–Winstein equation, of an addition-elimination mechanism for solvolysis in the solvents of only modest solvent ionizing power, which changes over to an ionization mechanism for solvents of relatively high ionizing power and low nucleophilicity, such as aqueous fluoroalcohols with an appreciable fluoroalcohol content. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Solution Chemical Kinetics 2.0)

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19 pages, 7223 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Exploring the Photodynamic Properties of Two Antiproliferative Benzodiazopyrrole Derivatives

by Concetta Imperatore, Mohammadhassan Valadan, Luciana Tartaglione, Marco Persico, Anna Ramunno, Marialuisa Menna, Marcello Casertano, Carmela Dell’Aversano, Manjot Singh, Maria Luisa d’Aulisio Garigliota, Francesco Bajardi, Elena Morelli, Caterina Fattorusso, Carlo Altucci and Michela Varra

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020, 21(4), 1246; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms21041246 - 13 Feb 2020

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3115

Abstract

The identification of molecules whose biological activity can be properly modulated by light is a promising therapeutic approach aimed to improve drug selectivity and efficacy on the molecular target and to limit the side effects compared to traditional drugs. Recently, two photo-switchable diastereomeric [...] Read more.

The identification of molecules whose biological activity can be properly modulated by light is a promising therapeutic approach aimed to improve drug selectivity and efficacy on the molecular target and to limit the side effects compared to traditional drugs. Recently, two photo-switchable diastereomeric benzodiazopyrrole derivatives 1RR and 1RS have been reported as microtubules targeting agents (MTAs) on human colorectal carcinoma p53 null cell line (HCT 116 p53-/-). Their IC₅₀ was enhanced upon Light Emitting Diode (LED) irradiation at 435 nm and was related to their cis form. Here we have investigated the photo-responsive behavior of the acid derivatives of 1RR and 1RS, namely, d1RR and d1RS, in phosphate buffer solutions at different pH. The comparison of the UV spectra, acquired before and after LED irradiation, indicated that the trans→cis conversion of d1RR and d1RS is affected by the degree of ionization. The apparent rate constants were calculated from the kinetic data by means of fast UV spectroscopy and the conformers of the putative ionic species present in solution (pH range: 5.7–8.0) were modelled. Taken together, our experimental and theoretical results suggest that the photo-conversions of trans d1RR/d1RS into the corresponding cis forms and the thermal decay of cis d1RR/d1RS are dependent on the presence of diazonium form of d1RR/d1RS. Finally, a photo-reaction was detected only for d1RR after prolonged LED irradiation in acidic medium, and the resulting product was characterized by means of Liquid Chromatography coupled to High resolution Mass Spectrometry (LC-HRMS) and Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) spectroscopy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Solution Chemical Kinetics 2.0)

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30 pages, 7252 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of the Size, the Number, and the Spatial Arrangement of Reactive Patches on a Sphere on Diffusion-Limited Reaction Kinetics: A Comprehensive Study

by Changsun Eun

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020, 21(3), 997; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms21030997 - 3 Feb 2020

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3492

Abstract

We investigate how the size, the number, and the spatial arrangement of identical nonoverlapping reactive patches on a sphere influence the overall reaction kinetics of bimolecular diffusion-limited (or diffusion-controlled) reactions that occur between the patches and the reactants diffusing around the sphere. First, [...] Read more.

We investigate how the size, the number, and the spatial arrangement of identical nonoverlapping reactive patches on a sphere influence the overall reaction kinetics of bimolecular diffusion-limited (or diffusion-controlled) reactions that occur between the patches and the reactants diffusing around the sphere. First, in the arrangement of two patches, it is known that the overall rate constant increases as the two patches become more separated from each other but decreases when they become closer to each other. In this work, we further study the dependence of the patch arrangement on the kinetics with three and four patches using the finite element method (FEM). In addition to the patch arrangement, the kinetics is also dependent on the number and size of the patches. Therefore, we study such dependences by calculating the overall rate constants using the FEM for various cases, especially for large-sized patches, and this study is complementary to the kinetic studies that were performed by Brownian dynamics (BD) simulation methods for small-sized patches. The numerical FEM and BD simulation results are compared with the results from various kinetic theories to evaluate the accuracies of the theories. Remarkably, this comparison indicates that our theory, which was recently developed based on the curvature-dependent kinetic theory, shows good agreement with the FEM and BD numerical results. From this validation, we use our theory to further study the variation of the overall rate constant when the patches are arbitrarily arranged on a sphere. Our theory also confirms that to maximize the overall rate constant, we need to break large-sized patches into smaller-sized patches and arrange them to be maximally separated to reduce their competition. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Solution Chemical Kinetics 2.0)

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17 pages, 1812 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Modeling Anomalous Moisture Transport in Cement-Based Materials with Kinetic Permeability

by Zhidong Zhang and Ueli Angst

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020, 21(3), 837; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms21030837 - 28 Jan 2020

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 3321

Abstract

The durability of reinforced concrete structures is closely related to moisture state in cement-based materials. Therefore, it is crucial to develop moisture models that can accurately predict moisture state in the materials. However, many studies reported anomalous moisture transport in cement-based materials that [...] Read more.

The durability of reinforced concrete structures is closely related to moisture state in cement-based materials. Therefore, it is crucial to develop moisture models that can accurately predict moisture state in the materials. However, many studies reported anomalous moisture transport in cement-based materials that cannot be well simulated by the conventional models. Several reasons have been investigated in the literature, such as the complex pore structure, chemical reactions with water, dimensional changes of the tested specimen, etc. Nevertheless, only a few models are able to capture the anomaly of moisture transport. This study viewed the main moisture transport coefficient—permeability—as a kinetic variable that depends on both the degree of moisture saturation and the contact time. The time-dependence was formulated by the decay (for drying) or growth (for wetting) functions. The saturation-dependence was calculated by the van Genuchten–Mualem (VGM) model. These functions were then implemented into a moisture transport model that was developed in previous studies. The proposed model was validated by experimental data and showed a good agreement for cement pastes that were dried or wetted in the hygroscopic range. Numerical simulation results were also compared with the simplified solutions to a fractional derivative model (FDM) of anomalous diffusion and the empirical Weibull function. We found that the solutions to the FDM cannot provide appropriate results. Weibull function performs as well as the proposed model, but the empirical function lacks physical meanings. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Solution Chemical Kinetics 2.0)

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12 pages, 2767 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Kinetic Analysis of the Thermal Decomposition of Iron(III) Phosphates: Fe(NH₃)₂PO₄ and Fe(ND₃)₂PO₄

by Isabel Iglesias, José A. Huidobro, Belén F. Alfonso, Camino Trobajo, Aránzazu Espina, Rafael Mendoza and José R. García

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020, 21(3), 781; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms21030781 - 25 Jan 2020

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2362

Abstract

The hydrothermal synthesis and both the chemical and structural characterization of a diamin iron phosphate are reported. A new synthetic route, by using n-butylammonium dihydrogen phosphate as a precursor, leads to the largest crystals described thus far for this compound. Its crystal [...] Read more.

The hydrothermal synthesis and both the chemical and structural characterization of a diamin iron phosphate are reported. A new synthetic route, by using n-butylammonium dihydrogen phosphate as a precursor, leads to the largest crystals described thus far for this compound. Its crystal structure is determined from single-crystal X-ray diffraction data. It crystallizes in the orthorhombic system (Pnma space group, a = 10.1116(2) Å, b = 6.3652(1) Å, c = 7.5691(1) Å, Z = 4) at room temperature and, below 220 K, changes towards the monoclinic system P2₁/n, space group. The in situ powder X-ray thermo-diffraction monitoring for the compound, between room temperature and 1100 K, is also included. Thermal analysis shows that the solid is stable up to ca. 440 K. The kinetic analysis of thermal decomposition (hydrogenated and deuterated forms) is performed by using the isoconversional methods of Vyazovkin and a modified version of Friedman. Similar values for the kinetic parameters are achieved by both methods and they are checked by comparing experimental and calculated conversion curves. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Solution Chemical Kinetics 2.0)

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22 pages, 5671 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comparison of The Sorption Kinetics of Lead(II) and Zinc(II) on Titanium Phosphate Ion-Exchanger

by Marina V. Maslova, Vladimir I. Ivanenko, Nataliya Yu. Yanicheva and Natalia V. Mudruk

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020, 21(2), 447; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms21020447 - 10 Jan 2020

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 3552

Abstract

The treatment of heavy metal-contaminated wastewater is an important action to reduce The negative impacts of industrial wastes on water bodies. This work focuses on The application of a low-cost titanium (IV) phosphate sorbent of TiO(OH)H₂PO42H₂O chemical composition toward [...] Read more.

The treatment of heavy metal-contaminated wastewater is an important action to reduce The negative impacts of industrial wastes on water bodies. This work focuses on The application of a low-cost titanium (IV) phosphate sorbent of TiO(OH)H₂PO42H₂O chemical composition toward lead and zinc ions depending on their concentration and The temperature of The solution. The kinetic studies showed that The values of The rate of intraparticle diffusion and The effective diffusion coefficients for Zn²⁺ were considerably higher than those for Pb²⁺. To explain The difference between The sorption kinetics rates for Pb²⁺ and Zn²⁺, The effective radius and dehydration degree of The adsorbed ions were calculated. The sorbent capability of The lead and zinc ion removal and its excellent efficiency in The presence of a high concentration of calcium ions were demonstrated using simulated mine water. Due to The fast kinetics and The high exchange capacity of titanium phosphate toward divalent ions, this sorbent can be considered as a promising material for The concentration and immobilization of heavy metals into The phosphate matrix. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Solution Chemical Kinetics 2.0)

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13 pages, 689 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Can Alkaline Hydrolysis of γ-HCH Serve as a Model Reaction to Study Its Aerobic Enzymatic Dehydrochlorination by LinA?

by Suraj Kannath, Paweł Adamczyk, Langping Wu, Hans H. Richnow and Agnieszka Dybala-Defratyka

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2019, 20(23), 5955; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms20235955 - 26 Nov 2019

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3140

Abstract

Hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH) isomers constitute a group of persistent organic pollutants. Their mass production and treatment have led to a global environmental problem that continues to this day. The characterization of modes of degradation of HCH by isotope fractionation is a current challenge. Multi [...] Read more.

Hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH) isomers constitute a group of persistent organic pollutants. Their mass production and treatment have led to a global environmental problem that continues to this day. The characterization of modes of degradation of HCH by isotope fractionation is a current challenge. Multi isotope fractionation analysis provides a concept to characterize the nature of enzymatic and chemical transformation reactions. The understanding of the kinetic isotope effects (KIE) on bond cleavage reaction contributes to analyses of the mechanism of chemical and enzymatic reactions. Herein, carbon, chlorine, and hydrogen kinetic isotope effects are measured and predicted for the dehydrochlorination reaction of γ-HCH promoted by the hydroxyl ion in aqueous solution. Quantum mechanical (QM) microsolvation with an implicit solvation model and path integral formalism in combination with free-energy perturbation and umbrella sampling (PI-FEP/UM) and quantum mechanical/molecular mechanical QM/MM potentials for including solvent effects as well as calculating isotope effects are used and analyzed with respect to their performance in reproducing measured values. Reaction characterization is discussed based on the magnitudes of obtained isotope effects. The comparative analysis between the chemical dehydrochlorination of γ-HCH in aqueous media and catalyzed reaction by dehydrochlorinase, LinA is presented and discussed. Based on the values of isotope effects, these two processes seem to occur via the same net mechanism. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Solution Chemical Kinetics 2.0)

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15 pages, 6772 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Flow and Mixing Behavior in a New Bottom Blown Copper Smelting Furnace

by Pin Shao and Lepeng Jiang

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2019, 20(22), 5757; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms20225757 - 16 Nov 2019

Cited by 26 | Viewed by 3310

Abstract

A mathematical model was developed to describe gas–liquid flow and mixing behavior in a new bottom blown oxygen copper smelting furnace, and the model validation was carried out through a water model experiment. The effects of different nozzle locations, nozzle numbers, and gas [...] Read more.

A mathematical model was developed to describe gas–liquid flow and mixing behavior in a new bottom blown oxygen copper smelting furnace, and the model validation was carried out through a water model experiment. The effects of different nozzle locations, nozzle numbers, and gas flow rates on the gas–liquid flow, gas total volume, and mixing efficiency were investigated. The results show that the gas–liquid two-phase flow and mixing time predicted by the present model agree well with the experimental data. When the nozzles are located near the center of the bath bottom, the gas total volume is larger, but the mixing efficiency is very low. With the increase of nozzle arrangement angle, the mixing time decreased. However, the excessive angle arrangement of nozzles exceeding 21° was found to be detrimental to the bubble residence time and mixing efficiency. With the increase in nozzle numbers from nine to 13, the gas total volume in the furnace increases, and the mixing efficiency does not change greatly. When the number of nozzles is further increased to 18, the mixing efficiency begins to decrease significantly. As the gas flow rate increases from 4.7 m³/h to 14.1 m³/h, the gas total volume in the furnace increases, and the mixing time is rapidly reduced from 314.5 s to 251.5 s. When the gas flow rate exceeds 18.8 m³/h, the gas total volume and mixing efficiency change little. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Solution Chemical Kinetics 2.0)

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12 pages, 2411 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Effect of the ortho Nitro Group in the Solvolysis of Benzyl and Benzoyl Halides

by Kyoung-Ho Park, Chan Joo Rhu, Jin Burm Kyong and Dennis N. Kevill

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2019, 20(16), 4026; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms20164026 - 18 Aug 2019

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2983

Abstract

A kinetic study was carried out on the solvolysis of o-nitrobenzyl bromide (o-isomer, 1) and p-nitrobenzyl bromide (p-isomer, 3), and o-nitrobenzoyl chloride (o-isomer, 2) in a wide range of solvents under [...] Read more.

A kinetic study was carried out on the solvolysis of o-nitrobenzyl bromide (o-isomer, 1) and p-nitrobenzyl bromide (p-isomer, 3), and o-nitrobenzoyl chloride (o-isomer, 2) in a wide range of solvents under various temperatures. In all of the solvents without aqueous fluoroalcohol, the reactions of 1 were solvolyzed at a similar rate to those observed for 3, and the reaction rates of 2 were about ten times slower than those of the previously studied p-nitrobenzoyl chloride (p-isomer, 4). For solvolysis in aqueous fluoroalcohol, the reactivity of 2 was kinetically more reactive than 4. The l/m values of the extended Grunwald–Winstein (G–W) equation for solvolysis of 1 and 2 in solvents without fluoroalcohol content are all significantly larger than unity while those in all the fluoroalcohol solvents are less than unity. The role of the ortho-nitro group as an intramolecular nucleophilic assistant (internal nucleophile) in the solvolytic reaction of 1 and 2 was discussed. The results are also compared with those reported earlier for o-carbomethoxybenzyl bromide (5) and o-nitrobenzyl p-toluenesulfonate (7). From the product studies and the activation parameters for solvolyses of 1 and 2 in several organic hydroxylic solvents, mechanistic conclusions are drawn. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Solution Chemical Kinetics 2.0)

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16 pages, 2300 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Reaction Kinetic Models of Antibiotic Heteroresistance

by Antal Martinecz, Fabrizio Clarelli, Sören Abel and Pia Abel zur Wiesch

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2019, 20(16), 3965; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms20163965 - 15 Aug 2019

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 5483

Abstract

Bacterial heteroresistance (i.e., the co-existence of several subpopulations with different antibiotic susceptibilities) can delay the clearance of bacteria even with long antibiotic exposure. Some proposed mechanisms have been successfully described with mathematical models of drug-target binding where the mechanism’s downstream of drug-target binding [...] Read more.

Bacterial heteroresistance (i.e., the co-existence of several subpopulations with different antibiotic susceptibilities) can delay the clearance of bacteria even with long antibiotic exposure. Some proposed mechanisms have been successfully described with mathematical models of drug-target binding where the mechanism’s downstream of drug-target binding are not explicitly modeled and subsumed in an empirical function, connecting target occupancy to antibiotic action. However, with current approaches it is difficult to model mechanisms that involve multi-step reactions that lead to bacterial killing. Here, we have a dual aim: first, to establish pharmacodynamic models that include multi-step reaction pathways, and second, to model heteroresistance and investigate which molecular heterogeneities can lead to delayed bacterial killing. We show that simulations based on Gillespie algorithms, which have been employed to model reaction kinetics for decades, can be useful tools to model antibiotic action via multi-step reactions. We highlight the strengths and weaknesses of current models and Gillespie simulations. Finally, we show that in our models, slight normally distributed variances in the rates of any event leading to bacterial death can (depending on parameter choices) lead to delayed bacterial killing (i.e., heteroresistance). This means that a slowly declining residual bacterial population due to heteroresistance is most likely the default scenario and should be taken into account when planning treatment length. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Solution Chemical Kinetics 2.0)

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18 pages, 3989 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Activity Coefficients for Liquid Organic Reactions: Towards a Better Understanding of True Kinetics with the Synthesis of Jasmin Aldehyde as Showcase

by Philippe M. Heynderickx

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2019, 20(15), 3819; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms20153819 - 5 Aug 2019

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 4031

Abstract

The aldol condensation of benzaldehyde and heptanal is taken as an example of reversible liquid phase organic reactions to show that inclusion of activity coefficients reveal distinct differences in conversion and product distribution when different solvents methanol, ethanol, n-propanol, or n-butanol are used. [...] Read more.

The aldol condensation of benzaldehyde and heptanal is taken as an example of reversible liquid phase organic reactions to show that inclusion of activity coefficients reveal distinct differences in conversion and product distribution when different solvents methanol, ethanol, n-propanol, or n-butanol are used. The purpose of this work is to show a pronounced solvent effect for a given set of identical kinetic parameters, i.e., the same liquid phase kinetics can result in different conversion and yield values, depending on the choice of solvent. It was shown that subsequent parameter estimation without inclusion of the activity coefficients resulted in a pronounced deviation from the ‘true’ kinetics, up to a factor of 30. It is proposed that the usage of average activity coefficients gives already a significant improvement, resulting in acceptable parameter estimates. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Solution Chemical Kinetics 2.0)

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12 pages, 1345 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Water Chemistry on Antimony Removal by Chemical Coagulation: Implications of ζ-Potential and Size of Precipitates

by Muhammad Ali Inam, Rizwan Khan, Muhammad Akram, Sarfaraz Khan and Ick Tae Yeom

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2019, 20(12), 2945; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms20122945 - 17 Jun 2019

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 3817

Abstract

The process of coagulation and precipitation affect the fate and mobility of antimony (Sb) species in drinking water. Moreover, the solubility and physico-chemical properties of the precipitates may be affected by the media chemistry. Accordingly, the present study aimed to investigate the removal [...] Read more.

The process of coagulation and precipitation affect the fate and mobility of antimony (Sb) species in drinking water. Moreover, the solubility and physico-chemical properties of the precipitates may be affected by the media chemistry. Accordingly, the present study aimed to investigate the removal of Sb(III, V) species by ferric chloride coagulation under various water chemistry influences with a particular focus on the role of the properties of the precipitates. The results indicated that the amount of Sb(III) removed increased with increasing solution pH, showing the insignificant effects of the hydrodynamic diameter (HDD) and ζ-potential of the precipitates. However, no Sb(V) removal occurred at alkaline pH values, while a highly negative ζ-potential and the complete dissolution of precipitates were observed in the aqueous solution. The solution pH was also useful in determining the dominant coagulation mechanisms, such as co-precipitation and adsorption. The Fe solubility substantially affects the Sb removal at a certain pH range, while the HDD of the precipitates plays an insignificant role in Sb removal. The presence of divalent cations brings the ζ-potential of the precipitates close to point of zero charge (pzc), thus enhancing the Sb(V) removal at alkaline pH conditions. Pronounced adverse effects of humic acid were observed on Sb removal, ζ-potential and HDD of the precipitates. In general, this study may provide critical information to a wide group of researchers dealing with environmental protection from heavy metal pollution. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Solution Chemical Kinetics 2.0)

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14 pages, 2976 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Mechanisms of Iodide–Triiodide Exchange Reactions in Ionic Liquids: A Reactive Molecular-Dynamics Exploration

by Aaron Byrne, Eduardo M. Bringa, Mario G. Del Pópolo, Jorge J. Kohanoff, Vanesa Galassi and Niall J. English

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2019, 20(5), 1123; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms20051123 - 5 Mar 2019

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 4978

Abstract

Efficient charge transport has been observed in iodine-doped, iodide-based room-temperature ionic liquids, yielding high ionic conductivity. To elucidate preferred mechanistic pathways for the iodide (

I^{-}

)-to-triiodide (

I_{3}^{-}

) exchange reactions, we have performed 10 ns reactive molecular-dynamics calculations [...] Read more.

Efficient charge transport has been observed in iodine-doped, iodide-based room-temperature ionic liquids, yielding high ionic conductivity. To elucidate preferred mechanistic pathways for the iodide (

I^{-}

)-to-triiodide (

I_{3}^{-}

) exchange reactions, we have performed 10 ns reactive molecular-dynamics calculations in the liquid state for 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium iodide ([BMIM][I]) at 450 to 750 K. Energy-barrier distributions for the iodine-swapping process were determined as a function of temperature, employing a charge-reassignment scheme drawn in part from electronic-structure calculations. Bond-exchange events were observed with rate-determining energy barriers ranging from ~0.19 to 0.23 ± 0.06 eV at 750 and 450 K, respectively, with an approximately Arrhenius temperature dependence for iodine self-diffusivity and reaction kinetics, although diffusion dominates/limits the bond-exchange events. This charge transfer is not dissimilar in energetics to those in solid-state superionic conductors. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Solution Chemical Kinetics 2.0)

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