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Life
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Personalized Prevention and Treatment in Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolic Diseases
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Personalized Prevention and Treatment in Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolic Diseases

A special issue of Life (ISSN 2075-1729). This special issue belongs to the section "Medical Research".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 16 May 2025 | Viewed by 16549

Special Issue Editor

Dr. Grigorios Panagiotou

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
MRC Epidemiology Unit, Institute of Metabolic Sciences, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
Interests: obesity; adipokines; myokines; personalized medicine; endocrinology

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Recent technological advances, including the widespread application of multi-omics analyses, have paved the way for more personalized medical interventions based on individual characteristics. Indeed, in many aspects of modern medicine, including cancer treatment, clinical protocols have incorporated the use of genetic studies in order to inform decision making regarding different therapeutic options.

In diabetes and other potentially preventable metabolic diseases, the combined use of clinical data, genes, biomarkers, phenotypic characteristics, behaviors, etc., may stratify patients based on their risk of developing complications and/or the influence of decision models and algorithms on individualized treatment targets or therapies. Furthermore, with the increasing application of new real-time technologies, such as continuous glucose monitoring devices and the subsequent accumulation of day-by-day data, it is tempting to speculate that personalized preventive and/or therapeutic interventions may target individuals at both ends of the “average spectrum”, which might not fully benefit from current generic recommendations. However, this is currently more limited in daily endocrine clinical practice. Ultimately, it remains unclear whether the utilization of these novel biotechnological and molecular breakthroughs enhances or even outperforms classical methods of individualization based on more easily obtained clinical and/or biochemical parameters.

In this Special Issue of Life, I invite you to share your research on precision medicine in the field of diabetes and endocrinology, from prevention to therapies. I am hoping that this will create a forum in which ideas and suggestions regarding the maximization of these tools in our field will be presented and discussed. I warmly welcome both original research and review articles that highlight the achievements and challenges in the field, and that may further generate research ideas for future studies.

Dr. Grigorios Panagiotou
Guest Editor

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Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Life is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • personalized medicine
  • precision prevention
  • multi-omics
  • obesity
  • diabetes and endocrinology

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Published Papers (10 papers)

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Research

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11 pages, 754 KiB  
Article
Predictive Accuracy of Biochemical and Anthropometric Indices for Metabolic Syndrome in Children with Obesity: A Comparative Study
by Cihad Dundar
Life 2025, 15(2), 216; https://doi.org/10.3390/life15020216 - 31 Jan 2025
Viewed by 327
Abstract
Children with obesity, regardless of gender, are a high-risk population that requires ongoing monitoring not only for present obesity and metabolic syndrome (MetS) but also future risks of metabolic, cardiac, musculoskeletal, and psychiatric complications. Data from a cohort of 185 obese children who [...] Read more.
Children with obesity, regardless of gender, are a high-risk population that requires ongoing monitoring not only for present obesity and metabolic syndrome (MetS) but also future risks of metabolic, cardiac, musculoskeletal, and psychiatric complications. Data from a cohort of 185 obese children who underwent a second follow-up in 2019 were used for this retrospective study. The study cohort consisted of 94 boys and 91 girls who were elementary school students with a mean age of 10.2 ± 0.5 years. Following anthropometric and biochemical assessments, the cardio metabolic index (CMI), visceral adiposity index (VAI), triglyceride–glucose index (TyGI), and homeostasis model assessment of insulin resistance (HOMA-IR) were calculated. The overall prevalence of MetS was 19.5% (12.8% in boys and 26.4% in girls). According to the receiver operating characteristic curve analysis, CMI, VAI, and TyGI performed significantly better than HOMA-IR in identifying MetS. CMI was the most accurate predictor of MetS, as indicated by the highest area under the curve value, in both genders. In conclusion, our findings suggest that the CMI can serve as a practical, efficient, and affordable screening tool for the ongoing monitoring of childhood obesity in both daily endocrine clinical practice and primary care settings. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Personalized Prevention and Treatment in Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolic Diseases)
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10 pages, 1462 KiB  
Article
Impact of Multistrain Probiotic Supplementation on Glycemic Control in Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus—Randomized Controlled Trial
by Venkata Chaithanya, Janardanan Kumar, Kakithakara Vajravelu Leela, Mohan Ram and Jayaprakash Thulukanam
Life 2024, 14(11), 1484; https://doi.org/10.3390/life14111484 - 14 Nov 2024
Viewed by 987
Abstract
Hyperglycemia, a key characteristic of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), highlights the need for effective management strategies. This study aims to analyze the impact of multistrain probiotic supplementation on glycemic control in T2DM patients. During a 24-week randomized controlled trial involving 130 participants, [...] Read more.
Hyperglycemia, a key characteristic of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), highlights the need for effective management strategies. This study aims to analyze the impact of multistrain probiotic supplementation on glycemic control in T2DM patients. During a 24-week randomized controlled trial involving 130 participants, subjects were assigned to either a probiotic group or a placebo group. The key outcomes included fasting blood glucose (FBG), postprandial blood glucose (PPBG), glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c) levels, and lipid profiles, assessed at baseline and post-intervention. The results indicated a significant reduction in HbA1c (p = 0.004) and increased HDL-c (p = 0.023) and improvements in lipid profiles in the probiotic group, alongside a trend toward decreased FBG and PPBG. No serious adverse effects were reported, indicating good tolerance of probiotics. These findings suggest that probiotics may positively influence metabolic parameters in T2DM patients, supporting their potential as a complementary dietary intervention. Further research is needed to understand the underlying mechanisms and enhance probiotic formulations for diabetic control. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Personalized Prevention and Treatment in Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolic Diseases)
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15 pages, 1448 KiB  
Article
Personal Goals, User Engagement, and Meal Adherence within a Personalised AI-Based Mobile Application for Nutrition and Physical Activity
by Elena Patra, Anna Kokkinopoulou, Saskia Wilson-Barnes, Kathryn Hart, Lazaros P. Gymnopoulos, Dorothea Tsatsou, Vassilios Solachidis, Kosmas Dimitropoulos, Konstantinos Rouskas, Anagnostis Argiriou, Elena Lalama, Marta Csanalosi, Andreas F. H. Pfeiffer, Véronique Cornelissen, Elise Decorte, Sofia Balula Dias, Yannis Oikonomidis, José María Botana, Riccardo Leoni, Duncan Russell, Eugenio Mantovani, Milena Aleksić, Boris Brkić, Maria Hassapidou and Ioannis Pagkalosadd Show full author list remove Hide full author list
Life 2024, 14(10), 1238; https://doi.org/10.3390/life14101238 - 27 Sep 2024
Viewed by 2395
Abstract
Mobile applications have been shown to be an effective and feasible intervention medium for improving healthy food intake in different target groups. As part of the PeRsOnalized nutriTion for hEalthy livINg (PROTEIN) European Union H2020 project, the PROTEIN mobile application was developed as [...] Read more.
Mobile applications have been shown to be an effective and feasible intervention medium for improving healthy food intake in different target groups. As part of the PeRsOnalized nutriTion for hEalthy livINg (PROTEIN) European Union H2020 project, the PROTEIN mobile application was developed as an end-user environment, aiming to facilitate healthier lifestyles through artificial intelligence (AI)-based personalised dietary and physical activity recommendations. Recommendations were generated by an AI advisor for different user groups, combining users’ personal information and preferences with a custom knowledge-based system developed by experts to create personalised, evidence-based nutrition and activity plans. The PROTEIN app was piloted across different user groups in five European countries (Belgium, Germany, Greece, Portugal, and the United Kingdom). Data from the PROTEIN app’s user database (n = 579) and the PROTEIN end-user questionnaire (n = 446) were analysed using the chi-square test of independence to identify associations between personal goals, meal recommendations, and meal adherence among different gender, age, and user groups. The results indicate that weight loss-related goals are more prevalent, as well as more engaging, across all users. Health- and physical activity-related goals are key for increased meal adherence, with further differentiation evident between age and user groups. Congruency between user groups and their respective goals is also important for increased meal adherence. Our study outcomes, and the overall research framework created by the PROTEIN project, can be used to inform the future development of nutrition mobile applications and enable researchers and application designers/developers to better address personalisation for specific user groups, with a focus on user intent, as well as in-app features. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Personalized Prevention and Treatment in Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolic Diseases)
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13 pages, 889 KiB  
Article
Personalized Management of Patients with Proliferative Diabetic Vitreoretinopathy
by Monika Ecsedy, Dorottya Szabo, Zsuzsa Szilagyi, Zoltan Zsolt Nagy and Zsuzsanna Recsan
Life 2024, 14(8), 993; https://doi.org/10.3390/life14080993 - 9 Aug 2024
Viewed by 846
Abstract
Purpose: To evaluate prognostic factors for visual outcome in patients with diabetes who have undergone vitrectomy (PPV) for severe proliferative diabetic vitreoretinopathy (PDVR) in at least one eye in the past 15 years. Methods: Medical records of 132 eyes of 66 patients were [...] Read more.
Purpose: To evaluate prognostic factors for visual outcome in patients with diabetes who have undergone vitrectomy (PPV) for severe proliferative diabetic vitreoretinopathy (PDVR) in at least one eye in the past 15 years. Methods: Medical records of 132 eyes of 66 patients were analyzed (median age 52 years 21–80; patients with type 1/2 diabetes 40/26; median follow-up 38 months 9–125). Correlations between final favorable visual outcome defined as 0.5≤ best-corrected visual acuity (BCVA) and prognostic factors (age, sex, type and duration of diabetes, metabolic status, BCVA, diabetic retinopathy status, data of preoperative management, data of vitrectomy, and postoperative complications) were analyzed. Results: BCVA improved significantly in the entire study cohort (from median 0.05 min–max 0.001–1 to 0.32, 0.001–1, p < 0.001). Visual stabilization was achieved in the majority of patients, and good visual acuity (0.5 ≤ BCVA) was maintained in more than one-third of the eyes. Multivariable GEE statistics showed that in addition to the duration of diabetes and stable HbA1c values, only preoperative tractional macular detachment proved to be an independent significant predictor of visual outcome. Conclusions: Pars plana vitrectomy is a useful tool when performed early before tractional macular detachment. However, long-term visual stability can only be achieved with good metabolic control. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Personalized Prevention and Treatment in Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolic Diseases)
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11 pages, 397 KiB  
Article
De-Intensification from Basal-Bolus Insulin Therapy to Liraglutide in Type 2 Diabetes: Predictive Value of Mean Glycaemia during Fasting Test
by Barbora Pavlikova, Martina Breburdova, Michal Krcma, Miroslav Kriz, Jan Kasparek and Zdenek Rusavy
Life 2024, 14(5), 568; https://doi.org/10.3390/life14050568 - 28 Apr 2024
Viewed by 1145
Abstract
Background: Successful conversion from insulin therapy to glucagon-like peptide 1 receptor agonist (GLP-1RA) with basal insulin in well-controlled patients has already been demonstrated. However, the data concerning individuals with poor glycaemic control are scarce. The aim of this work was to assess the [...] Read more.
Background: Successful conversion from insulin therapy to glucagon-like peptide 1 receptor agonist (GLP-1RA) with basal insulin in well-controlled patients has already been demonstrated. However, the data concerning individuals with poor glycaemic control are scarce. The aim of this work was to assess the success rate of insulin therapy to liraglutide transition in poorly controlled diabetes in a real-world clinical setting and to define predictors of success. We are the first to present the method of a fasting test as a way to identify the patients at higher risk of failure after treatment de-intensification. Methods: The retrospective observational study analyzed data of 62 poorly controlled obese diabetic patients on high-dose insulin therapy, who were subjected to a 72 h fasting test during hospitalization and subsequently switched to liraglutide ± basal insulin therapy. During the fasting, all antidiabetic treatment was discontinued. Patients were classified as responders if they remained on GLP-1RA treatment after 12 months. Non-responders restarted the basal-bolus insulin (BBI) regimen. Development of glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c) and body weight in both groups, alongside with parameters associated with the higher risk of return to the BBI regimen, were analyzed. Results: A total of 71% of patients were switched successfully (=responders). Responders had more significant improvement in HbA1c (−6.4 ± 19.7 vs. −3.4 ± 22.9 mmol/mol) and weight loss (−4.6 ± 7.1 vs. −2.5 ± 4.0). Statistically significant difference between groups was found in initial HbA1c (75.6 ± 17.9 vs. 90.5 ± 23.6; p = 0.04), total daily dose of insulin (67.6 ± 36.4 vs. 90.8 ± 32.4; p = 0.02), and mean glycaemia during the fasting test (6.9 ± 1.7 vs. 8.6 ± 2.2 mmol/L; p < 0.01). Conclusions: This study confirms that therapy de-intensification in poorly controlled patients with a BBI regimen is possible. Higher baseline HbA1c, total daily insulin dose, and mean glucose during fasting test are negative predictive factors of successful therapy de-escalation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Personalized Prevention and Treatment in Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolic Diseases)
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Review

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16 pages, 1316 KiB  
Review
Gestational Diabetes Mellitus: New Thinking on Diagnostic Criteria
by Jiyu Luo, Ling Tong, Ao Xu, Yihan He, Haiyun Huang, Dongmei Qiu, Xiaoyu Guo, Hongli Chen, Lingyun Xu, Yang Li, Hongling Zhang and Yuanyuan Li
Life 2024, 14(12), 1665; https://doi.org/10.3390/life14121665 - 16 Dec 2024
Viewed by 874
Abstract
Currently, there is a lack of standardized diagnostic criteria for gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM), making it a subject of ongoing debate. The optimal diagnostic method and screening strategy for GDM remain contentious. In this review, we summarize the criteria and methods for diagnosing [...] Read more.
Currently, there is a lack of standardized diagnostic criteria for gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM), making it a subject of ongoing debate. The optimal diagnostic method and screening strategy for GDM remain contentious. In this review, we summarize the criteria and methods for diagnosing GDM, and perform a comparison between universal and selective screening strategies. Therefore, this review aims to highlight the following: (1) The most widely adopted criteria for GDM are those established by the International Association of Diabetes and Pregnancy Study Groups (IADPSG). (2) Evidence from cohort studies suggests that the one-step diagnostic method is associated with improved pregnancy outcomes and appears more cost-effective compared to the two-step method. (3) Universal screening is more cost-effective than selective screening, which may overlook a significant number of women with GDM. Additionally, various methods have been proposed for early pregnancy screening (before 14 weeks). Finally, an outlook is presented for the diagnosis of GDM, emphasizing the importance of large-scale randomized controlled trials (RCTs) to provide stronger evidence for future support. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Personalized Prevention and Treatment in Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolic Diseases)
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17 pages, 6284 KiB  
Review
Current Trends in Stroke Biomarkers: The Prognostic Role of S100 Calcium-Binding Protein B and Glial Fibrillary Acidic Protein
by Georgios Anogianakis, Stylianos Daios, Nikolaos Topouzis, Konstantinos Barmpagiannos, Georgia Kaiafa, Athena Myrou, Eleftheria Ztriva, Alexandra Tsankof, Eleni Karlafti, Antonia Anogeianaki, Nikolaos Kakaletsis and Christos Savopoulos
Life 2024, 14(10), 1247; https://doi.org/10.3390/life14101247 - 1 Oct 2024
Viewed by 1714
Abstract
Stroke is the third leading cause of death in the developed world and a major cause of chronic disability, especially among the elderly population. The major biomarkers of stroke which are the most promising for predicting onset time and independently differentiating ischemic from [...] Read more.
Stroke is the third leading cause of death in the developed world and a major cause of chronic disability, especially among the elderly population. The major biomarkers of stroke which are the most promising for predicting onset time and independently differentiating ischemic from hemorrhagic and other stroke subtypes are at present limited to a few. This review aims to emphasize on the prognostic role of S100 calcium-binding protein b (S100B), and Glial Fibrillary Acidic Protein (GFAP) in patients with stroke. An electronic search of the published research from January 2000 to February 2024 was conducted using the MEDLINE, Scopus, and Cochrane databases. The implementation of S100B and GFAP in existing clinical scales and imaging modalities may be used to improve diagnostic accuracy and realize the potential of blood biomarkers in clinical practice. The reviewed studies highlight the potential of S100B and GFAP as significant biomarkers in the prognosis and diagnosis of patients with stroke and their ability of predicting long-term neurological deficits. They demonstrate high sensitivity and specificity in differentiating between ischemic and hemorrhagic stroke and they correlate well with stroke severity and outcomes. Several studies also emphasize on the early elevation of these biomarkers post-stroke onset, underscoring their value in early diagnosis and risk stratification. The ongoing research in this field should aim at improving patient outcomes and reducing stroke-related morbidity and mortality by developing a reliable, non-invasive diagnostic tool that can be easily implemented in several healthcare settings, with the ultimate goal of improving stroke management. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Personalized Prevention and Treatment in Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolic Diseases)
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30 pages, 1654 KiB  
Review
How Can Promoting Skeletal Muscle Health and Exercise in Children and Adolescents Prevent Insulin Resistance and Type 2 Diabetes?
by Valeria Calcaterra, Vittoria Carlotta Magenes, Alice Bianchi, Virginia Rossi, Alessandro Gatti, Luca Marin, Matteo Vandoni and Gianvincenzo Zuccotti
Life 2024, 14(9), 1198; https://doi.org/10.3390/life14091198 - 21 Sep 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2908
Abstract
Skeletal muscle secretome, through its paracrine and endocrine functions, contributes to the maintenance and regulation of overall physiological health. We conducted a narrative review on the role of skeletal muscle and exercise in maintaining glucose homeostasis, driving insulin resistance (IR), and preventing type [...] Read more.
Skeletal muscle secretome, through its paracrine and endocrine functions, contributes to the maintenance and regulation of overall physiological health. We conducted a narrative review on the role of skeletal muscle and exercise in maintaining glucose homeostasis, driving insulin resistance (IR), and preventing type 2 diabetes in pediatric populations, especially in the context of overweight and obesity. Myokines such as interleukin (IL)-6, IL-8, and IL-15, as well as irisin, myonectin, and myostatin, appear to play a crucial role in IR. Skeletal muscle can also become a target of obesity-induced and IR-induced inflammation. In the correlation between muscle, IR, and inflammation, the role of infiltration of the immune cells and the microvasculature may also be considered. It remains unclear which exercise approach is the best; however, combining aerobic exercise with resistance training seems to be the most effective strategy for managing IR, with high-intensity activities offering superior metabolic benefits and long-term adherence. Encouraging daily participation in enjoyable and engaging exercise is key for long-term commitment and effective glucose metabolism management. Promoting physical activity in children and adolescents must be a top priority for public health, not only in terms of individual quality of life and well-being but also for community health. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Personalized Prevention and Treatment in Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolic Diseases)
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21 pages, 766 KiB  
Review
Physical Activity during Pregnancy and Risk of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus: A Meta-Review
by Carmen Rute-Larrieta, Gloria Mota-Cátedra, Juan Manuel Carmona-Torres, Victoria Mazoteras-Pardo, Esperanza Barroso-Corroto, Carlos Navarrete-Tejero, Michail Zografakis-Sfakianakis, Athina Patelarou, Maria Manuela Martins, Ana da Conceinçao Alves Faria and José Alberto Laredo-Aguilera
Life 2024, 14(6), 755; https://doi.org/10.3390/life14060755 - 13 Jun 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2617
Abstract
Background: Nowadays, pregnant women require more individualized attention in their assistance process during pregnancy. One of the aspects that requires the most focus is the suitability of carrying out physical activity. The objective of this meta-review is to find out the effects of [...] Read more.
Background: Nowadays, pregnant women require more individualized attention in their assistance process during pregnancy. One of the aspects that requires the most focus is the suitability of carrying out physical activity. The objective of this meta-review is to find out the effects of physical activity during pregnancy on the incidence of GDM compared to women who do not perform physical activity. Methods: A search was conducted in Cochrane, CSIC, Ebscohost, Proquest, Pubmed, Scielo, and Scopus. The search focused on systematic reviews and meta-analyses published in the last five years. The AMSTAR-2 scale was used as a quality assessment tool for the final sample. Results: A total of 18 systematic reviews and meta-analyses were included. Sixteen of them found out that physical activity during pregnancy has preventive effects for GDM compared with women who lacked physical activity. Among the studies, we found a reduction in the risk of GDM of between 24% and 38% and odds ratios ranging between 0.39 and 0.83 calculated for a 95% CI. Only two studies did not find statistically significant effects. Other variables such as type and duration of physical activity, overweight and obesity, gestational age, etc., were also considered. Conclusions: Physical activity prevents the incidence of GDM. The main characteristics that enhance this preventive effect are starting at the initial stages of pregnancy and maintaining during the whole pregnancy as well as combining strength and aerobic exercise at a low to moderate intensity. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Personalized Prevention and Treatment in Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolic Diseases)
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Other

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18 pages, 1259 KiB  
Systematic Review
Impact of Gut Microbiome Interventions on Glucose and Lipid Metabolism in Metabolic Diseases: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis
by Alexandra Laura Mederle, Mirabela Dima, Emil Robert Stoicescu, Bogdan Florin Căpăstraru, Codrina Mihaela Levai, Ovidiu Alin Hațegan and Anca Laura Maghiari
Life 2024, 14(11), 1485; https://doi.org/10.3390/life14111485 - 14 Nov 2024
Viewed by 1449
Abstract
Background: The gut microbiome is increasingly recognized as a key player in metabolic health, influencing glucose and lipid metabolism through various mechanisms. However, the efficacy of gut microbiota-targeted interventions, such as probiotics, prebiotics, fecal microbiota transplantation (FMT), and diet-based treatments, remains unclear for [...] Read more.
Background: The gut microbiome is increasingly recognized as a key player in metabolic health, influencing glucose and lipid metabolism through various mechanisms. However, the efficacy of gut microbiota-targeted interventions, such as probiotics, prebiotics, fecal microbiota transplantation (FMT), and diet-based treatments, remains unclear for specific metabolic outcomes. In this study, the aim was to evaluate the impact of these interventions on the glucose and lipid parameters in individuals with metabolic diseases such as diabetes mellitus (DM), obesity, and metabolic syndrome. Methods: This systematic review and meta-analysis included 41 randomized controlled trials that investigated the effects of gut microbiota-targeted treatments on metabolic parameters such as fasting glucose, glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c), homeostatic model assessment for insulin resistance (HOMA-IR), total cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C), high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C), and triglycerides. A comprehensive search was conducted using databases like PubMed, Google Scholar, and Scopus, focusing on interventions targeting the gut microbiota. A meta-analysis was performed using random-effects models, with effect sizes calculated for each outcome. Risk of bias was assessed using the Cochrane Risk of Bias tool. Results: Gut microbiota-targeted interventions significantly reduced fasting glucose, HbA1c, HOMA-IR, total cholesterol, LDL-C, and triglycerides, with moderate heterogeneity observed across studies. The interventions also led to modest increases in HDL-C levels. Probiotic and synbiotic interventions showed the most consistent benefits in improving both glucose and lipid profiles, while FMT yielded mixed results. Short-term interventions showed rapid microbial shifts but less pronounced metabolic improvements, whereas longer-term interventions had more substantial metabolic benefits. Conclusions: In this study, it is demonstrated that gut microbiota-targeted interventions can improve key metabolic outcomes, offering a potential therapeutic strategy for managing metabolic diseases. However, the effectiveness of these interventions varies depending on the type, duration, and population characteristics, highlighting the need for further long-term studies to assess the sustained effects of microbiota modulation on metabolic health. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Personalized Prevention and Treatment in Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolic Diseases)
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