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Advances in Titanium and Titanium Alloys: Processing, Properties and Additive Manufacturing

A special issue of Materials (ISSN 1996-1944). This special issue belongs to the section "Metals and Alloys".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 20 December 2024 | Viewed by 7245

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Krzysztof Szymkiewicz

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Applied Mechanics and Biomechanics, Cracow University of Technology, 31-155 Cracow, Poland
Interests: titanium alloy; surface treatment; biomaterial; solid-state mechanics; microstructure analysis; numerical analysis; micromechanical modelling; composite
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Prof. Dr. Marek Goral

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Material Science, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering and Aeronautics, Rzeszow University of Technology, Powstancow Warszawy 12, 35-959 Rzeszow, Poland
Interests: thermal spraying process; hard coatings; diffusion coating; wear resistant coatings; plasma nitriding and pack boriding processes; coatings properties; superalloys; Intermetallics (TiAl)
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Titanium and its alloys belong to the material groups used in many applications in areas such as automotive, aviation or biomedical engineering. The development of manufacturing technology and engineering indicate the need to develop new materials with better mechanical and functional properties. The advanced design and modeling of new titanium alloys should be carried out with the help of multiscale microstructure analysis including SEM and TEM microscope observations, numerical methods, mechanical experiments, the application of machine learning to the prediction of materials properties, as well as the optimization of process conditions. The application of the mentioned experimental methods should ensure the development of material engineering.

This Special Issue aims to provide an overview of new solutions in the area of processing and additive manufacturing of advanced titanium and its alloys, focusing on their microstructural and mechanical properties.

Dr. Krzysztof Szymkiewicz
Prof. Dr. Marek Goral
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Materials is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • titanium alloy
  • additive manufacturing
  • surface treatment
  • mechanical properties
  • microstructural properties
  • material modelling

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Published Papers (7 papers)

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Research

17 pages, 15064 KiB  
Article
Tensile Properties of Ex-Situ Ti-TiC Metal Matrix Composites Manufactured by Laser Powder Bed Fusion
by Gaëtan Bernard, Vaclav Pejchal, Olha Sereda and Roland E. Logé
Materials 2024, 17(22), 5613; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17225613 - 17 Nov 2024
Viewed by 345
Abstract
Titanium-based Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs) manufactured by additive manufacturing offer tremendous lightweighting opportunities. However, processing the high reinforcement contents needed to substantially improve elastic modulus while conserving significant ductility remains a challenge. Ti-TiC MMCs fabricated in this study reported fracture strains in tension [...] Read more.
Titanium-based Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs) manufactured by additive manufacturing offer tremendous lightweighting opportunities. However, processing the high reinforcement contents needed to substantially improve elastic modulus while conserving significant ductility remains a challenge. Ti-TiC MMCs fabricated in this study reported fracture strains in tension up to 1.7% for a Young’s modulus of 149 GPa. This fracture strain is 30% higher than the previously reported values for Ti-based MMCs produced by Laser Powder Bed Fusion (LPBF) displaying similar Young’s moduli. The heat treatment used after the LPBF process leads to the doubling of the fracture strain thanks to the conversion of TiCx dendrites into equiaxed TiCx grains. The as-built microstructure shows both un-dissolved TiC particles and sub-stoichiometric TiC dendrites resulting from the partial dissolution of TiC particles. The reduction of the C/Ti ratio in TiC during the process results in an increase in the reinforcement content, from a nominal 12 vol% to an effective 21.5 vol%. The variation of the TiC lattice constant with its stoichiometry is measured, and an empirical expression is proposed for its effect on TiC’s Young’s modulus. The lower TiC powder size distribution displayed higher mechanical properties thanks to a reduced number of intrinsic flaws. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Titanium and Titanium Alloys: Processing, Properties and Additive Manufacturing)
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23 pages, 15646 KiB  
Article
Evaluation of Surface Finishing Efficiency of Titanium Alloy Grade 5 (Ti–6Al–4V) After Superfinishing Using Abrasive Films
by Katarzyna Tandecka, Wojciech Kacalak, Michał Wieczorowski and Thomas G. Mathia
Materials 2024, 17(21), 5198; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17215198 - 25 Oct 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1052
Abstract
Ti–6Al–4V is the most commonly used alpha–beta titanium alloy, making it the most prevalent among all titanium alloys. The processed material is widely employed in aerospace, medical, and other industries requiring moderate strength, a good strength-to-weight ratio, and favorable corrosion resistance. A microfinishing [...] Read more.
Ti–6Al–4V is the most commonly used alpha–beta titanium alloy, making it the most prevalent among all titanium alloys. The processed material is widely employed in aerospace, medical, and other industries requiring moderate strength, a good strength-to-weight ratio, and favorable corrosion resistance. A microfinishing process on the titanium alloy surface was conducted using abrasive films with grain sizes of 30, 12, and 9 μm. Superfinishing with abrasive films is a sequential process, where finishing operations are performed with tools of progressively smaller grains. The surface topography measurements of the workpiece were taken after each operation. The experiment was in the direction of developing a new surface smoothness coefficient considering the number and distribution of contact points so as to properly evaluate the quality of the surface finishing. The results showed that the finest-grain films gave the most uniform contact points, thus offering the best tribological characteristics; the 9 LF (micron lapping film) tools gave the smoothest surfaces (Sz = 2 µm), while the biggest-grain films, such as the 30 FF (micron microfinishing film), were less effective since large protrusions formed. This is a suitable study to explore the optimization paths for the superfinishing of titanium alloys, with implications for improving the performance and longevity of components in critical industrial applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Titanium and Titanium Alloys: Processing, Properties and Additive Manufacturing)
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14 pages, 10797 KiB  
Article
The Influence of Deep Cryogenic Treatment (DCT) on the Microstructure Evolution and Mechanical Properties of TC4 Titanium Alloy
by Xuzhi Lan, Yulang Xu, Jingyong Li, Yifeng Gong and Mingxiao Shi
Materials 2024, 17(18), 4603; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17184603 - 19 Sep 2024
Viewed by 624
Abstract
Deep cryogenic treatment (−196 °C, DCT) is an emerging application that can make significant changes to many materials. In this study, DCT was applied to Ti6Al4V (TC4) titanium alloy, and we delved into an examination of the impact on its microstructural morphologies and [...] Read more.
Deep cryogenic treatment (−196 °C, DCT) is an emerging application that can make significant changes to many materials. In this study, DCT was applied to Ti6Al4V (TC4) titanium alloy, and we delved into an examination of the impact on its microstructural morphologies and mechanical properties. It was observed that DCT has a significant effect on the grain refinement of the TC4 titanium alloy base material. Obvious grain refinement behavior can be observed with 6 h of DCT, and the phenomenon of grain refinement becomes more pronounced with extension of the DCT time. In addition, DCT promotes the transformation of the β phase into the α′ phase in the TC4 titanium alloy base material. XRD analysis further confirmed that DCT leads to the transformation of the β phase into the α′ phase. The element vanadium was detected by scanning electron microscopy, and it was found that the β phase inside the base material had transformed into the α′ phase. It was observed that DCT has a positive influence on the hardness of the TC4 titanium alloy base material. The hardness of the sample treated with 18 h of DCT increased from 331.2 HV0.5 to 362.5 HV0.5, presenting a 9.5% increase compared to the sample without DCT. Furthermore, it was proven that DCT had little effect on the tensile strength but a significant impact on the plasticity and toughness of the base material. In particular, the elongation and impact toughness of the sample subject to 18 h of DCT represented enhancements of 27.33% and 8.09%, respectively, compared to the raw material without DCT. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Titanium and Titanium Alloys: Processing, Properties and Additive Manufacturing)
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14 pages, 5959 KiB  
Article
Impact of Glow-Discharge Nitriding Technology on the Properties of 3D-Printed Grade 2 Titanium Alloy
by Janusz Kamiński, Ryszard Sitek, Bogusława Adamczyk-Cieślak and Krzysztof Kulikowski
Materials 2024, 17(18), 4592; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17184592 - 19 Sep 2024
Viewed by 579
Abstract
This study presents a comparative analysis of the corrosion resistance of nitrided layers on conventional Grade 2 titanium alloy and those produced by direct metal laser sintering (DMLS). Low-temperature glow-discharge nitriding of the tested materials was carried out using conventional glow-discharge nitriding (so-called [...] Read more.
This study presents a comparative analysis of the corrosion resistance of nitrided layers on conventional Grade 2 titanium alloy and those produced by direct metal laser sintering (DMLS). Low-temperature glow-discharge nitriding of the tested materials was carried out using conventional glow-discharge nitriding (so-called nitriding at the cathode potential—TiN/CP) and with the use of an “active screen” (nitriding at the plasma potential—TiN/PP). The TiN + Ti2N + Ti(N) layers were characterized by their microstructure, nanohardness profile distribution, surface topography, and corrosion resistance. The reduction in the cathodic sputtering phenomenon in the process using the active screen allowed the creation of surface layers that retained the topography of the base material. The parameters of the glow-discharge treatment led to grain growth in the printed substrates. This did not adversely affect corrosion resistance. The corrosion resistance of nitrided layers on the printed titanium alloy is only slightly lower than that of layers on the conventional Grade 2 alloy. Iron precipitates at grain boundaries facilitate increased nitrogen diffusion, resulting in reduced nitrogen concentration in the surface layer, slight changes in corrosion potential values, and increased nitrogen concentration in the Ti(N) diffusion layer. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Titanium and Titanium Alloys: Processing, Properties and Additive Manufacturing)
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15 pages, 9764 KiB  
Article
Spark Plasma Sintering of Pure Titanium: Microstructure and Mechanical Characteristics
by Satyavan Digole, Sanoj Karki, Manoj Mugale, Amit Choudhari, Rajeev Kumar Gupta and Tushar Borkar
Materials 2024, 17(14), 3469; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17143469 - 13 Jul 2024
Viewed by 974
Abstract
The versatility of titanium (Ti) allows it to be employed in various industries, from aerospace engineering to medical technology, highlighting its significance in modern manufacturing and engineering processes. Spark plasma sintering (SPS) is currently being explored to enhance its properties further and broaden [...] Read more.
The versatility of titanium (Ti) allows it to be employed in various industries, from aerospace engineering to medical technology, highlighting its significance in modern manufacturing and engineering processes. Spark plasma sintering (SPS) is currently being explored to enhance its properties further and broaden its application range. The current study focuses on exploring and optimizing the effect of SPS temperature (800, 900, 1000, 1100, 1200, and 1400 °C) on pure Ti sintered at 60 MPa in a controlled argon environment with a dwell time of 5 min. All the prepared samples were highly dense with a relative density above 99%, but exhibited significant variations in grain size (10 to 57 µm), tensile yield strength (488 to 700 MPa), ultimate tensile strength (597 to 792 MPa), and ductility (4 to 7%). A microstructural investigation was performed using XRD, SEM, and EDS to predict the influence of sintering temperature on the formation of different phases. The XRD patterns of all sintered samples showed the presence of single-phase α-Ti with hexagonally close-packed Ti. This work is a step forward in optimizing SPS-processed Ti’s physical and mechanical properties for enhanced structural and biomedical applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Titanium and Titanium Alloys: Processing, Properties and Additive Manufacturing)
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11 pages, 7562 KiB  
Article
High Temperature Oxidation Behavior of Additive Manufactured Ti6Al4V Alloy with the Addition of Yttrium Oxide Nanoparticles
by Qiang Wang, Pu Song, Wenjuan Niu, Nan Li and Ning Hu
Materials 2024, 17(11), 2544; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17112544 - 24 May 2024
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 876
Abstract
Titanium alloys face challenges of high temperature oxidation during the service period when used as aircraft engine components. In this paper, the effect of Y2O3 addition on the oxidation behavior and the microstructural change of the Ti6Al4V alloy fabricated by [...] Read more.
Titanium alloys face challenges of high temperature oxidation during the service period when used as aircraft engine components. In this paper, the effect of Y2O3 addition on the oxidation behavior and the microstructural change of the Ti6Al4V alloy fabricated by selective laser melting (SLM) was comprehensively studied. The results show that the surface of the Ti6Al4V alloy is a dense oxide layer composed of TiO2 and Al2O3 compounds. The thickness of the oxide layer of the Ti6Al4V increased from 59.55 μm to 139.15 μm. In contrast, with the addition of Y2O3, the thickness of the oxide layer increased from 35.73 μm to 80.34 μm. This indicates that the thickness of the oxide layer formation was a diffusion-controlled process and, therefore, the thickness of the oxide layer increased with an increase in temperature. The Ti6Al4V-1.0 wt.% Y2O3 alloy exhibits excellent oxidation resistance, and the thickness is significantly lower than that of the Ti6Al4V alloy. The oxidation kinetics of the Ti6Al4V and Ti6Al4V-1.0 wt.% Y2O3 alloys at 600 °C and 800 °C follows a parabolic rule, whereas the oxidation of the Ti6Al4V and Ti6Al4V-1.0 wt.% Y2O3 alloys at 1000 °C follows the linear law. The average microhardness values of Ti6Al4V samples after oxidation increased to 818.9 ± 20 HV0.5 with increasing temperature, and the average microhardness values of the Ti6Al4V-1.0 wt.% Y2O3 alloy increases until 800 °C and then decreases at 1000 °C. The addition of Y2O3 shows a significant improvement in the microhardness during the different temperatures after oxidation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Titanium and Titanium Alloys: Processing, Properties and Additive Manufacturing)
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10 pages, 6119 KiB  
Article
Deciphering Hydrogen Embrittlement Mechanisms in Ti6Al4V Alloy: Role of Solute Hydrogen and Hydride Phase
by Tien-Dung Nguyen, Chetan Singh, Dong-Hyun Lee, You Sub Kim, Taeho Lee and Soo Yeol Lee
Materials 2024, 17(5), 1178; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17051178 - 3 Mar 2024
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2035
Abstract
Ti6Al4V (Ti64) is a versatile material, finding applications in a wide range of industries due to its unique properties. However, hydrogen embrittlement (HE) poses a challenge in hydrogen-rich environments, leading to a notable reduction in strength and ductility. This study investigates the complex [...] Read more.
Ti6Al4V (Ti64) is a versatile material, finding applications in a wide range of industries due to its unique properties. However, hydrogen embrittlement (HE) poses a challenge in hydrogen-rich environments, leading to a notable reduction in strength and ductility. This study investigates the complex interplay of solute hydrogen (SH) and hydride phase (HP) formation in Ti64 by employing two different current densities during the charging process. Nanoindentation measurements reveal distinct micro-mechanical behavior in base metal, SH, and HP, providing crucial insights into HE mechanisms affecting macro-mechanical behavior. The fractography and microstructural analysis elucidate the role of SH and HP in hydrogen-assisted cracking behaviors. The presence of SH heightens intergranular cracking tendencies. In contrast, the increased volume of HP provides sites for crack initiation and propagation, resulting in a two-layer brittle fracture pattern. The current study contributes to a comprehensive understanding of HE in Ti6Al4V, essential for developing hydrogen-resistant materials. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Titanium and Titanium Alloys: Processing, Properties and Additive Manufacturing)
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