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Enhancing In-Use Properties of Advanced Steels

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A special issue of Materials (ISSN 1996-1944). This special issue belongs to the section "Metals and Alloys".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (10 September 2024) | Viewed by 14157

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Special Issue Editors

Prof. Dr. Francisca G. Caballero

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Centro Nacional de Investigaciones Metalúrgicas (CENIM-CSIC), Avda Gregorio del Amo, 8, E-28040 Madrid, Spain
Interests: phase transformation in steels; complex microstructures in advanced steels; both applied and fundamental aspects of the design, processing, and characterization of nanocrystalline steels

Dr. Krolicka Aleksandra

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Department of Metal Forming, Welding and Metrology, Wrocław University of Science and Technology, Wrocław, Poland
Interests: materials characterization; high-strength steels; bainite; fracture mechanisms; microstructure-properties relationship; in-use properties of advanced steels
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Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

For several decades, advanced steel grades have attracted the attention of researchers and industry professionals. However, the majority of research focuses on the optimization of mechanical properties and modeling of the microstructure. The possibility of industrial implementation is also determined by the in-use properties that strongly affect the manufacturing process. From industry insight, it is important to develop new strategies and concepts for designing steels that, in addition to excellent mechanical properties, are characterized by properties focused on specific operating conditions and technological processes.

This Special Issue aims to provide an opportunity for researchers from both academia and industry to share their advances pertinent to the Special Issue “Enhancing in-use properties of advanced steels”, which covers the design strategy of novel grades of advanced steels focused on in-use properties crucial in terms of industrialization such as weldability, thermomechanical processes, thermal stability at elevated temperatures, corrosion resistance and novel methods of corrosion protection, modeling of mechanical properties focused on specific operating conditions, as well as explanations of the relationship between structure and properties (in-use, technological, mechanical, etc.). Both fundamental insights and practical foresights are greatly welcome in the form of research articles or reviews addressing topics such as thermodynamics, kinetics, physical modelling, numerical simulation, microstructural evolution, advanced characterization of structure constituents, artificial intelligence, big data, and cloud computation.

Prof. Dr. Francisca G. Caballero
Dr. Krolicka Aleksandra
Guest Editors

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Keywords

modeling of the chemical composition of novel grades of advanced steels
advanced multi-phase, TRIP/TWIP, bainitic or martensitic steels
industrialization aspects in terms of in-use properties
weldability, thermomechanical processes, corrosion resistance, wear
thermal and mechanical stability of phase constituents
thermal stability in elevated temperatures, creep resistance
structure–properties relationships, with a focus on specific working conditions

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Published Papers (10 papers)

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Research

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17 pages, 7910 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Enhanced Durability of Wood Cutting Tools through Thermal Cycling

by Hamza Sofiane Meddas, Muftah Zorgani, Majid Heidari, Mousa Javidani, Tom Levasseur and Mohammad Jahazi

Materials 2024, 17(20), 5051; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17205051 - 16 Oct 2024

Viewed by 593

Abstract

This study investigates the impact of multi-step austenitization heat treatment on the in-service life of modified AISI A8 cold work tool steel knives used in wood cutting. The knives were subjected to two treatment methods: single quenching and double tempering (SQDT) and double quenching and double tempering (DQDT). Both treatments were followed by physical vapor deposition (PVD) coating to enhance surface properties. The DQDT treatment resulted in a finer microstructure and more uniform carbide distribution. Field tests on 24 knives over 124 h demonstrated up to 130% improvement in wear resistance for DQDT knives, along with superior edge stability and better PVD coating preservation. DQDT knives exhibited ductile fractures characterized by dimples, contrasting with the brittle fracture and cleavage facets in SQDT knives. Residual stress measurements showed higher compressive stresses in DQDT knives (−280 MPa) compared to SQDT knives (−30 MPa), which increased further after field testing. The enhanced performance of DQDT knives is attributed to their refined microstructure, improved carbide distribution, and higher compressive residual stresses, offering significant potential for improving wood cutting tool efficiency and durability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Enhancing In-Use Properties of Advanced Steels)

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10 pages, 27965 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Impact of Size and Distribution of k-Carbides on the Hydrogen Embrittlement and Trapping Behaviors of a Fe-Mn-Al-C Low-Density Steel

by Yinchen Xiong, Xiaofei Guo and Han Dong

Materials 2024, 17(11), 2698; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17112698 - 3 Jun 2024

Viewed by 912

Abstract

This study compares the hydrogen embrittlement susceptibility of a Fe-30Mn-8Al-1.2C austenitic low-density steel aged at 600 °C for 0 (RX), 1 min (A1) and 60 min (A60), each exhibiting varying sizes and distributions of nano-sized κ-carbides. Slow strain rate tests were conducted to assess hydrogen embrittlement susceptibility, while thermal desorption analysis was applied to investigate hydrogen trapping behaviors. Fracture surface analysis was employed to discuss the associated failure mechanisms. The results suggest that nano-sized κ-carbides with sizes ranging from 2–4 nm play a crucial role in mitigating hydrogen embrittlement, contrasting with the exacerbating effect of coarse grain boundary κ-carbides. This highlights the significance of controlling the sizes and morphology of precipitates in designing hydrogen-resistant materials. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Enhancing In-Use Properties of Advanced Steels)

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14 pages, 10274 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of Nickel on Microstructure and Mechanical Properties in Medium-Carbon Spring Steel

by Qian Yu, Yuliang Zhao and Feiyu Zhao

Materials 2024, 17(10), 2423; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17102423 - 17 May 2024

Viewed by 948

Abstract

The effects of adding nickel on the phase transition temperature, microstructure, and mechanical properties of medium-carbon spring steel have been investigated. The results show that adding nickel reduces the martensite start (M_s) temperature, improves hardenability, and refines the sub-microstructure of the martensite, thereby improving yield stress. The yield strength of martensitic steel increases by approximately 100 MPa due to a synergistic combination of grain refinement strengthening and dislocation strengthening, with an increase in the nickel content from 0 wt.% to 1 wt.%. The cryogenic impact toughness of martensitic steel also improved with a higher nickel content due to packet and block refinement and an increase in the proportion of high-angle grain boundaries (HAGBs). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Enhancing In-Use Properties of Advanced Steels)

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22 pages, 8943 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Possibilities of Increasing the Durability of Dies Used in the Extrusion Process of Valve Forgings from Chrome-Nickel Steel by Using Alternative Materials from Hot-Work Tool Steels

by Marek Hawryluk, Marta Janik, Maciej Zwierzchowski, Marzena Małgorzata Lachowicz and Jakub Krawczyk

Materials 2024, 17(2), 346; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17020346 - 10 Jan 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1128

Abstract

This study refers to an analysis of the dies used in the first operation of producing a valve forging from chromium-nickel steel NC3015. The analyzed process of manufacturing forgings of exhaust valves is realized in the co-extrusion technology, followed by forging in closed dies. This type of technology is difficult to master, mainly due to the increased adhesion of the charge material to the tool substrate as well as the complex conditions of the tools’ operations, which are caused by the cyclic thermo-mechanical loads and also the hard tribological conditions. The average durability of tools made from tool steel WLV (1.2365), subjected to thermal treatment and nitriding, equals about 1000 forgings. In order to perform an in-depth analysis, a complex analysis of the presently realized technology was conducted in combination with multi-variant numerical simulations. The obtained results showed numerous cracks on the tools, especially in the cross-section reduction area, as well as sticking of the forging material, which, with insufficient control of the tribological conditions, can cause premature wear of the dies. In order to increase the durability of forging dies, alternative materials made of hot work tool steels were used: QRO90 Supreme, W360, and Unimax. The preliminary tests showed that the best results were obtained for QRO90, as the average durability for the tools made of this steel equaled about 1200 forgings (with an increase in both the minimal and maximal values), with reference to the 1000 forgings for the material applied so far. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Enhancing In-Use Properties of Advanced Steels)

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18 pages, 21608 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Effect of Homogenization Heat Treatment on 316L Stainless Steel Cast Billet

by Hung-Yang Chu, Ren-Kae Shiue and Sheng-Yuan Cheng

Materials 2024, 17(1), 232; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17010232 - 31 Dec 2023

Viewed by 1489

Abstract

This investigation aims to analyze the effect of homogenization heat treatment at 1240 °C for 2 and 6 h on the hardness, distribution, morphology, and chemical composition of the δ-ferrite and sigma phases in 316L stainless steel cast billet. A field emission scanning electron microscope, combined with electron back-scattered diffraction, a field emission electron probe microanalyzer with a wavelength dispersive spectrometer, and a Vickers microhardness tester are applied to identify various phase evolutions in the cast billet. The morphology of the δ-ferrite and sigma phases in the austenite matrix of the 316L cast billet are strongly related to the subsequent hot and cold wire drawings. The homogenization heat treatment is expected to provide a driving force to form spheroid interdendritic δ-ferrite and to minimize the amount of the brittle sigma intermetallic compound in the austenite matrix. The homogenization heat treatment at 1240 °C effectively spheroidized all δ-ferrites into blunt ones in the cast billet. The transformation of δ-ferrite into sigma is dominated by temperature and cooling rate. The fast air cooling after homogenization between 1240 and 850 °C retards the precipitation of the sigma in the δ-ferrite. There are two δ-ferrite transformation mechanisms in this experiment. The direct transformation of the δ-ferrite into sigma is observed in the as-cast 316L stainless steel billet. In contrast, the eutectoid transformation of the δ-ferrite into the sigma and austenite dominates the 316L cast billet homogenized at 1240 °C, with a slow furnace cooling rate. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Enhancing In-Use Properties of Advanced Steels)

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18 pages, 11415 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Prior Boriding on Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Nanobainitic X37CrMoV5-1 Hot-Work Tool Steel

by Grzegorz Łukaszewicz, Michał Tacikowski, Michał Kulka, Krzysztof Chmielarz, Monika Węsierska-Hinca and Wiesław A. Świątnicki

Materials 2023, 16(12), 4237; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16124237 - 7 Jun 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1394

Abstract

The influence of prior pack boriding on the microstructure and properties of nanobainitised X37CrMoV5-1 hot-work tool steel was investigated in the present work. Pack boriding was conducted at 950 °C for 4 h. Nanobainitising consisted of two-step isothermal quenching at 320 °C for 1 h, followed by annealing at 260 °C for 18 h. A combination of boriding with nanobainitising constituted a new hybrid treatment. The obtained material exhibited a hard borided layer (up to 1822 ± 226 HV0.05) and a strong (rupture strength 1233 ± 41 MPa) nanobainitic core. However, the presence of a borided layer decreased mechanical properties under tensile and impact load conditions (total elongation decreased by 95% and impact toughness by 92%). Compared with borided and conventionally quenched and tempered steel, the hybrid–treated material retained higher plasticity (total elongation higher by 80%) and higher impact toughness (higher by 21%). It was found that the boriding led to the redistribution of carbon and silicon atoms between the borided layer and substrate, which could influence bainitic transformation in the transition zone. Furthermore, the thermal cycle in the boriding process also influenced the phase transformations during subsequent nanobainitising. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Enhancing In-Use Properties of Advanced Steels)

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17 pages, 56302 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Effect of Hybrid Treatment Combining Boriding and Nanobainitising on the Tribological and Mechanical Properties of 66SiMnCrMo6-6-4 Bearing Steel

by Grzegorz Łukaszewicz, Michał Tacikowski, Michał Kulka, Krzysztof Chmielarz and Wiesław A. Świątnicki

Materials 2023, 16(9), 3436; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16093436 - 28 Apr 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1422

Abstract

The effect of a new hybrid heat treatment consisting of pack-boriding and nanobainitising on the microstructure and properties of EN 66SiMnCrMo6-6-4 bearing steel was investigated. The hybrid treatment produces a new high-strength (ca. 1480 MPa) material with a hard boride (ca. 2000 HV0.05) surface layer and a relatively ductile nanobainitic core. The formation of the boride layer significantly improves wear resistance. The boride layer, which is hard but susceptible to cracking, reduces the mechanical properties under tensile and impact loads. However, the borided and nanobainitised steel exhibits much higher tensile strength and ductility and slightly better impact toughness than steel after post-boriding quenching and tempering. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Enhancing In-Use Properties of Advanced Steels)

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18 pages, 17274 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Controlling the Thermal Stability of a Bainitic Structure by Alloy Design and Isothermal Heat Treatment

by Aleksandra Królicka, Francisca Garcia Caballero, Władysław Zalecki, Roman Kuziak and Radosław Rozmus

Materials 2023, 16(8), 2963; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16082963 - 7 Apr 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1763

Abstract

The aim of this work was to develop a novel bainitic steel that will be specifically dedicated to achieving a high degree of refinement (nano- or submicron scale) along with increased thermal stability of the structure at elevated temperatures. The material was characterized by improved in-use properties, expressed as the thermal stability of the structure, compared to nanocrystalline bainitic steels with a limited fraction of carbide precipitations. Assumed criteria for the expected low martensite start temperature, bainitic hardenability level, and thermal stability are specified. The steel design process and complete characteristics of the novel steel including continuous cooling transformation and time–temperature–transformation diagrams based on dilatometry are presented. Moreover, the influence of bainite transformation temperature on the degree of structure refinement and dimensions of austenite blocks was also determined. It was assessed whether, in medium-carbon steels, it is possible to achieve a nanoscale bainitic structure. Finally, the effectiveness of the applied strategy for enhancing thermal stability at elevated temperatures was analyzed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Enhancing In-Use Properties of Advanced Steels)

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23 pages, 12844 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Prediction of Hole Expansion Ratio for Advanced High-Strength Steel with Image Feature Analysis of Sheared Edge

by Kyucheol Jeong, Yuhyeong Jeong, Jaewook Lee, Chanhee Won and Jonghun Yoon

Materials 2023, 16(7), 2847; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16072847 - 3 Apr 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2167

Abstract

The punching process of AHSS induces edge cracks in successive process, limiting the application of AHSS for vehicle bodies. Controlling and predicting edge quality is substantially difficult due to the large variation in edge quality, die wear induced by high strength, and the complex effect of phase distribution. To overcome this challenge, a quality prediction model that considers the variation of the entire edge should be developed. In this study, the image of the entire edge was analyzed to provide a comprehensive evaluation of its quality. Statistical features were extracted from the edge images to represent the edge quality of DP780, DP980, and MART1500 steels. Combined with punching monitoring signals, a prediction model for hole expansion ratio was developed under punch conditions of varying clearance, punch angle, and punch edge radius. It was found that the features of grayscale variation are affected by the punching conditions and are related to the double burnish and uneven burr, which degrades the edge quality. Prediction of HER was possible based on only edge image and monitoring signals, with the same performance as the prediction based solely on punching parameters and material properties. The prediction performance improved when using all the features. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Enhancing In-Use Properties of Advanced Steels)

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Review

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21 pages, 2292 KiB

Open AccessReview

Recent Progress in Laser Powder Bed Fusions Processes of Advanced High-Strength Steels

by Aleksandra Królicka and Julia Malawska

Materials 2024, 17(19), 4699; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17194699 - 25 Sep 2024

Viewed by 968

Abstract

This review is focused on the perspectives of the application of Advanced High Strength Steels (AHSSs) in the field of additive technologies directed at the laser powder bed fusion/selective laser melting processes. In principle, AHSSs require significant attention due to their promising mechanical properties for usage in the automotive industry towards reducing the weight of vehicles. Although additive manufacturing represents a promising perspective towards expanding the industrialization of AHSSs in a wider area of their applications, they have not been sufficiently investigated concerning their usage in LPBF/SLM processes. AM techniques enable the fabrication of complex machine parts, including those with a cellular structure, which can contribute to further reducing the weight of vehicles or structures. Maraging steels have recently attracted the attention of researchers, and today are a common grade of steel produced by LPBF techniques. The other group of AHSSs are high-Mn steels with an austenitic matrix characterized by the TRIP and TWIP effects. Less published research has been conducted on medium-Mn steels, which require additional intercritical annealing and preheating during printing. Moreover, the advanced bainitic steels and low-density, high-strength steels represent a new window for further research into the use of the LPBF processes for their fabrication. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Enhancing In-Use Properties of Advanced Steels)

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