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A special issue of Materials (ISSN 1996-1944). This special issue belongs to the section "Construction and Building Materials".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 20 May 2025 | Viewed by 11098

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Paweł Strzałkowski

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Department of Mining, Faculty of Geoengineering, Mining and Geology, Wroclaw University of Science and Technology, Wybrzeże Wyspiańskiego 27, 50-370 Wrocław, Poland
Interests: rock mining; rock quality assessment; natural stone; mineral aggregates; properties of dimension stones and mineral aggregates; dimension stones processing technologies; reclamation of post-mining areas; occupational health and safety

Prof. Dr. Luís M. O. Sousa

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Department of Geology and Pole of CGeo—Geosciences Center, University of Trás‐os‐Montes e Alto Douro, Quinta de Prados, 5000-801 Vila Real, Portugal
Interests: natural stone; engineering geology; quarrying; fracturing; land planning and mineral resources

Dr. Ekin Köken

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Guest Editor

Nanotechnology Engineering Department, Abdullah Gul University, Kayseri 38100, Turkey
Interests: engineering geology; natural stones; aggregate science and technology; mining engineering

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Natural building and construction materials are the basic materials used in civil engineering. The continuous development of the construction industry determines the continuous demand for mineral raw materials. Aggregates and dimension stones, which are commonly used in construction, should be of the highest quality. Defining this quality is very difficult due to the varying properties of rocks and the ways in which they are used. This Special Issue aims to provide an overview of recent developments in the advances in natural materials for building and construction, including the assessment of the quality of dimension stone and mineral aggregates and their applications in different areas of civil engineering. The issue aims to provide selected papers on the analysis of available testing technologies; physical–mechanical properties; quality assessment; and the market and economic, environmental and social aspects of the production and use of natural building and construction materials.

Potential topics include, but are not limited to:

The use of natural building and construction materials;
The geological and petrographic features of natural building and construction materials;
The properties of natural building and construction materials;
The quality assessment of natural building and construction materials;
The deterioration processes of natural building and construction materials;
The evaluation of test methods for properties and requirements for natural building and construction materials;
The application of modern technologies for the qualitative assessment of natural building and construction materials;
Market analysis of natural building and construction materials;
The evaluation of production processes of high-quality natural building and construction materials;
The economic, environmental and social aspects of the production and use of natural building and construction materials.

Dr. Paweł Strzałkowski
Prof. Dr. Luís M. O. Sousa
Dr. Ekin Köken
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Materials is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

natural building and construction materials
quality of rocks
dimension stones
mineral aggregates
properties of rocks
rock mining
engineering geology

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Published Papers (10 papers)

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Research

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15 pages, 15631 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Starting Point on Recycling Land and Sea Snail Shell Wastes to Manufacture Quicklime, Milk of Lime, and Hydrated Lime

by Eduardo Ferraz, Denise Terroso, Maria Cristina Sequeira, Maria Celeste Azevedo, João Coroado, Carlos Monteiro, Fernando Rocha and José A. F. Gamelas

Materials 2024, 17(23), 5683; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17235683 - 21 Nov 2024

Viewed by 174

Abstract

The valorization of gastropod shell wastes in the production of lime is the topic of this study. First, shells from land snail and sea snail were characterized for their mineralogical, chemical, and thermal properties. Then, the shells were calcined at 1000 °C, and the obtained quicklimes were characterized for their specific surface area, pore diameter, and particle morphology, followed by evaluation of their reactivity in wet slaking tests. Comparisons were made with lime from limestone. It was found that both gastropod shell wastes were composed of aragonite as the dominant crystalline phase. The quicklime from land snail belonged to the most reactive class (R5) of the wet slaking reactivity, reaching 60 °C in about 5 min, whereas the quicklime from the sea snail belonged to the R4 class, reaching 60 °C in about 14 min. However, both were much less reactive than the lime from limestone (60 °C in 25 s). The lower reactivity of quicklime from sea snail shells compared to quicklime from land snail shells could be related to its higher sulfur content (as contaminant), lower pore diameter, and the presence of particles with rounder surfaces. The reference quicklime from limestone was more reactive, mainly due to the much higher specific surface area and lower particle size. It was concluded that the gastropod shell wastes can be used in lime manufacturing. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Natural Building and Construction Materials)

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19 pages, 3162 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Challenges and Performance of Filter Dusts as a Supplementary Cementitious Material

by Johannes Berger, Anabella Mocciaro, Gisela Cordoba, Cecilia Martinefsky, Edgardo F. Irassar, Nancy Beuntner, Sebastian Scherb, Karl-Christian Thienel and Alejandra Tironi

Materials 2024, 17(22), 5676; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17225676 - 20 Nov 2024

Viewed by 235

Abstract

Global industry relies on a linear approach for economic growth. One step towards transformation is the implementation of a circular economy and the reclamation of anthropogenic deposits. This study examines two filter dusts, one German and one Argentinian, from the production of calcined clays, representing such deposits. Investigations and comparisons of untreated and calcined filter dust and the industrial base product pave the way for using waste product filter dust as supplementary cementitious material (SCM). In the future, some twenty thousand tons of contemporary waste could potentially be used annually as SCM. The results confirm the suitability of one material as a full-fledged SCM without further treatment and a measured pozzolanic reactivity on par with fly ash. Sample materials were classified into two groups: one was found to be a reactive pozzolanic material; the other was characterized as filler material with minor pozzolanic reactivity. Additionally, important insights into the physical properties of oven dust and heat-treated oven dust were obtained. For both material groups, an inversely proportional relationship with rising calcination temperatures was found for the specific surface area and water demand. The impact of the calcination temperature on both the particle size distribution and the potential to optimize the reactivity performance is presented. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Natural Building and Construction Materials)

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23 pages, 7325 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Dissolution of Volcanic Ash in Alkaline Environment for Cold Consolidation of Inorganic Binders

by Giovanni Dal Poggetto, Philippe Douwe, Antonio Stroscio, Elie Kamseu, Isabella Lancellotti, Antoine Elimbi and Cristina Leonelli

Materials 2024, 17(20), 5068; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17205068 - 17 Oct 2024

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Abstract

A systematic study on the dissolution in concentrated alkali of two volcanic ashes from Cameroon, denoted as DAR and VN, is presented here. One volcanic ash, DAR, was 2 wt% richer in Fe and Ca and 4 wt% lower in Si than the other, designated as VN. Such natural raw materials are complex mixtures of aluminosilicate minerals (kaersutite, plagioclase, magnetite, diopside, thenardite, forsterite, hematite, and goethite) with a good proportion of amorphous phase (52 and 74 wt% for DAR and VN, respectively), which is more reactive than the crystalline phase in alkaline environments. Dissolution in NaOH + sodium silicate solution is the first step in the geopolymerisation process, which, after hardening at room temperature, results in solid and resistant building blocks. According to XRD, the VN finer ash powders showed a higher reactivity of Al-bearing soluble amorphous phases, releasing Al cations in NaOH, as indicated by IPC-MS. In general, dissolution in a strong alkaline environment did not seem to be affected by the NaOH concentration, provided that it was kept higher than 8 M, or by the powder size, remaining below 75 µm, while it was affected by time. However, in the time range studied, 1–120 min, the maximum element release was reached at about 100 min, when an equilibrium was reached. The hardened alkali activated materials show a good reticulation, as indicated by the low weight loss in water (10 wt%) when a hardening temperature of 25 °C was assumed. The same advantage was found for of the room-temperature consolidated specimens’ mechanical performance in terms of resistance to compression (4–6 MPa). The study of the alkaline dissolution of volcanic ash is, therefore, an interesting way of predicting and optimising the reactivity of the phases of which it is composed, especially the amorphous ones. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Natural Building and Construction Materials)

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15 pages, 6521 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Preparation and Immobilization Mechanism of Red Mud/Steel Slag-Based Geopolymers for Solidifying/Stabilizing Pb-Contaminated Soil

by Xinyang Wang and Yongjie Xue

Materials 2024, 17(13), 3353; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17133353 - 6 Jul 2024

Viewed by 1051

Abstract

Pb-contaminated soil poses serious hazards to humans and ecosystems and is in urgent need of remediation. However, the extensive use of traditional curing materials such as ordinary Portland cement (OPC) has negatively impacted global ecology and the climate, so there is a need to explore low-carbon and efficient green cementitious materials for the immobilization of Pb-contaminated soils. A red mud/steel slag-based (RM/SS) geopolymer was designed and the potential use of solidifying/stabilizing heavy metal Pb pollution was studied. The Box–Behnken design (BBD) model was used to design the response surface, and the optimal preparation conditions of RM/SS geopolymer (RSGP) were predicted by software of Design-Expert 8.0.6.1. The microstructure and phase composition of RSGP were studied by X-ray diffractometer, Fourier transform infrared spectrometer, scanning electron microscopy and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, and the immobilization mechanism of RSGP to Pb was revealed. The results showed that when the liquid–solid ratio is 0.76, the mass fraction of RM is 79.82% and the modulus of alkali activator is 1.21, the maximum unconfined compressive strength (UCS) of the solidified soil sample is 3.42 MPa and the immobilization efficiency of Pb is 71.95%. The main hydration products of RSGP are calcium aluminum silicate hydrate, calcium silicate hydrate and nekoite, which can fill the cracks in the soil, form dense structures and enhance the UCS of the solidified soil. Pb is mainly removed by lattice immobilization, that is, Pb participates in geopolymerization by replacing Na and Ca to form Si-O-Pb or Al-O-Pb. The remaining part of Pb is physically wrapped in geopolymer and forms Pb(OH)₂ precipitate in a high-alkali environment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Natural Building and Construction Materials)

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23 pages, 11073 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Thermal-Induced Microstructure Deterioration of Egyptian Granodiorite and Associated Physico-Mechanical Responses

by Mohamed Elgharib Gomah, Guichen Li, Ahmed A. Omar, Mahmoud L. Abdel Latif, Changlun Sun and Jiahui Xu

Materials 2024, 17(6), 1305; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17061305 - 12 Mar 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 938

Abstract

Mineral transformations often induce microstructural deteriorations during temperature variations. Hence, it is crucial to understand why and how this microstructure weakens due to mineral alteration with temperature and the correlated physical and mechanical responses. Therefore, in this study, physical, chemical, thermal, petrographic, and mechanical analyses were carried out to comprehend better the thermal behaviors of Egyptian granodiorite exposed to temperatures as high as 800 °C. The experimental results indicate that the examined attributes change in three distinct temperature phases. Strength zone (up to 200 °C): During this phase, the temperature only slightly impacts the granodiorite mass loss and porosity, and the P-wave velocity and E slightly decrease. However, the rock structure was densified, which resulted in a minor increase in strength. After that, the transition zone (200–400 °C) was distinguished by the stability of most studied parameters. For instance, mass and porosity did not significantly alter, and the uniaxial compressive strength steadily increased with an axial failure mode. When the temperature rises, transgranular cracks cause the P-wave velocity and elastic modulus to decrease moderately. The decay zone started after 400 °C and continued to 800 °C. This zone is characterized by complicated factors that worsen the granodiorite properties, lead to color shift, and produce a shear failure mode. The properties of granodiorite became worse because of chemical reactions, structural and crystal water evaporation, rising thermal expansion coefficient variation, and quartz inversion at 575 °C (α to β, according to the differential thermal analysis). Thermal damage greatly affected granodiorite’s physical and mechanical properties and microstructure at 800 °C. As a result, UCS measurements were extremely small with a complex failure pattern, making Vp and E unattainable. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Natural Building and Construction Materials)

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19 pages, 11642 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Study on the Mechanical Properties of Two General-Purpose Cement–Lime Mortars Prepared Based on Air Lime

by Armando Zagaroli, Jan Kubica, Iwona Galman and Kristian Falkjar

Materials 2024, 17(5), 1001; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17051001 - 22 Feb 2024

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1414

Abstract

It is believed that the use of mortars based on air lime in the construction and renovation of brick buildings has a number of advantages, especially those closely related to the durability and strength of the structure. However, there is still a noticeable difference in the mechanical properties of these materials. This research investigated the mechanical characteristics of a mixed cement–lime mortar with the two most popular proportions of an air lime, cement, and sand mix: 1:1:6 and 1:2:9 (by volume). Mechanical tests were performed on standard and non-standard samples to assess compressive strength, tensile strength, flexural strength, and fracture energy. The obtained results indicate the possibility of using these mixtures in modern masonry construction, as well as in the aspect of sustainable development. Additionally, lime mortar with a higher lime content can be used in non-load-bearing walls and in renovation and repair works. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Natural Building and Construction Materials)

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17 pages, 3739 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Salt Mist Ageing on the Physical and Mechanical Properties of Two Ignimbrites from the Canary Islands (Spain)

by José A. Valido, José M. Cáceres, D. M. Freire-Lista and Luís M. O. Sousa

Materials 2023, 16(22), 7061; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16227061 - 7 Nov 2023

Viewed by 1097

Abstract

The aim of this research work is to study the effect of salt mist ageing on the physico-mechanical properties of two ignimbrites from the Canary Islands (Spain). Due to their insular nature and extensive coastlines, these regions are highly susceptible to atmospheric salt aerosols, which is a significant weathering agent for building materials. The ignimbrites analysed are marketed under the names “Azul Lomo Tomás de León” and “Marrón de Abades” and are widely used as building stones. Petrographic, mineralogical and chemical properties were obtained via polarisation microscopy, X-ray diffraction and X-ray fluorescence. The samples were subjected to 60 cycles of a salt mist environment, following relevant European standards. Scanning electron microscopy images of the specimens were analysed along with physical properties, including apparent density, open porosity, water absorption, colourimetry and ultrasound propagation velocity, initially and after every 20 cycles, allowing us to assess their evolution during the ageing test. Mechanical properties were evaluated using uniaxial compressive strength and flexural strength under concentrated load tests on two groups of specimens: one unaged and the other subjected to 60 ageing cycles. With the exception of apparent density, the other properties show a decrease between 5% and 30%. However, open porosity increases and is one of the properties most affected by the ageing test. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Natural Building and Construction Materials)

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16 pages, 2863 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Influence of Acid Casein on the Selected Properties of Lime–Metakaolin Mortars

by Przemysław Brzyski and Renata Boris

Materials 2023, 16(21), 7050; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16217050 - 6 Nov 2023

Viewed by 1241

Abstract

One of the ways to modify selected parameters of lime mortars is the use of biopolymers of animal origin, such as bone glue, skin glue, bovine blood, eggs, and casein. These are protein-based biopolymers. Casein is an example of an organic polymer produced from cow’s milk. The aim of the work was to investigate the possibilities of improving selected properties of mortars based on hydrated lime and metakaolin. The mixture was modified with powdered technical casein in amounts of 0.5%, 1.5%, 1%, 1.5%, and 2% as a partial mass replacement for the binding mixture. Additionally, the influence of increasing the amount of water on the properties of the mortar with a casein admixture of 2% was checked. This study examined consistency, shrinkage, water absorption, capillary action, porosity, flexural, compressive strength, and Young’s modulus. The admixture of casein influenced the properties of the mortar, but not in all cases, and it was possible to determine a clear trend related to the variable amount of casein. Strength properties deteriorated as the amount of casein increased. When air bubbles were introduced into the mortar after the casein was dissolved, the porosity increased as the amount of admixture increased. The moisture properties improved; namely, casein led to a reduction in water absorption and water absorption caused by capillary action. No relationship was observed between the amount of casein and the drying shrinkage. Increasing the amount of water in the mixture led to the expected effects, i.e., an increase in porosity, shrinkage, and water absorption, and a decrease in mechanical strength. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Natural Building and Construction Materials)

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17 pages, 2629 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Guidelines for Natural Stone Products in Connection with European Standards

by Paweł Strzałkowski, Ekin Köken and Luís Sousa

Materials 2023, 16(21), 6885; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16216885 - 26 Oct 2023

Viewed by 1884

Abstract

The selection of ornamental stones for specific applications requires technical guidance since it should be based on the durability, service life, and aesthetic value of the stones. In most cases, these fundamentals provide quantitative data on the usability and performance of ornamental stones. The present study attempts to put forward a quantitative classification system for natural stone products concerning critical rock properties. For this purpose, fundamental physical and mechanical rock properties are listed based on European standards. Then, minimum limit values are proposed for different applications of natural stone products based on retrospective analyses of numerous ornamental stone applications. The suggested limit values based on several physical and mechanical rock properties can guide relevant engineers to initially consider possible rock types for use as natural stones in a wide range of applications. In this context, it is believed that the present study contributes to the natural stone industry by discussing the minimum limit values for the consideration of a wide range of rock types possibly usable in the dimension stone industry. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Natural Building and Construction Materials)

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Review

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26 pages, 6047 KiB

Open AccessReview

On the Cementitious Mixtures Reinforced with Waste Polyethylene Terephthalate

by Cristiano Giuseppe Coviello, Armando La Scala, Maria Francesca Sabbà and Leonarda Carnimeo

Materials 2024, 17(21), 5351; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17215351 - 31 Oct 2024

Viewed by 804

Abstract

The last decade was dominated by a serious problem that now affects all the planet’s natural ecosystems: the increasing growth of plastics and microplastics that are difficult to dispose of. One strategy to mitigate this problem is to close the life cycle of one of them—polyethylene terephthalate (PET)—by reusing it within the most common building materials, such as mortars and concretes. The reuse of PET waste as aggregates also allows us to limit the CO₂ emissions released during the production of natural aggregates. This paper analyzes the outcomes of many studies carried out on the characteristics of cementitious mixtures reinforced with waste PET material. Many researchers have demonstrated how PET used as reinforcement of mortars and concretes can produce an increase in the mechanical strengths of the corresponding cementitious mixtures without PET. The tensile strength of this resin is higher than that of concrete; so, by combining the two materials it is possible to obtain a mixture with an overall higher tensile strength, resulting in increased flexural strength and reduced cracking. Using an effective size of PET fibers, it is possible to achieve an increase in the ductility and toughness of the cementitious mixture. Several studies reveal that PET reinforcement reduces the density with a consequent decrease in weight and structural loads, while the workability increases using spherical and smoother PET aggregates. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Natural Building and Construction Materials)

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Planned Papers

The below list represents only planned manuscripts. Some of these manuscripts have not been received by the Editorial Office yet. Papers submitted to MDPI journals are subject to peer-review.

Title: This research provides alternative solutions for construction waste, which is identified as the main source of pollution in this industry. In Ecuador, construction waste reaches values of 72,000 tons (2013), without proper classification of these material
Author: Correa
Highlights: Geopolymeric Mix Optimization: The optimal mix (12.5 M NaOH, 26% solution, 150°C) achieved an optimization factor of 14.84 MPa/kg. Thermal Efficiency: Geopolymer bricks reduced heating demand by 26.7% and cooling demand by 15.7%. Sustainability: The process reduces energy and resource consumption. Mechanical Viability: It meets both compressive and flexural strength requirements.

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