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13 pages, 4725 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Multiple Porous Synthetic Bone Graft Comprising EngineeredMicro-Channel for Drug Carrier and Bone Regeneration

by Chun-Sik Bae, Seung-Hyun Kim, Taeho Ahn, Yeonji Kim, Se-Eun Kim, Seong-Soo Kang, Jae-Sung Kwon, Kwang-Mahn Kim, Sahng-Gyoon Kim and Daniel Oh

Materials 2021, 14(18), 5320; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14185320 - 15 Sep 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2670

Abstract

Due to high demand but limited supply, there has been an increase in the need to replace autologous bone grafts with alternatives that fulfill osteogenic requirements. In this study, two different types of bone grafts were tested for their drug carrying abilities along [...] Read more.

Due to high demand but limited supply, there has been an increase in the need to replace autologous bone grafts with alternatives that fulfill osteogenic requirements. In this study, two different types of bone grafts were tested for their drug carrying abilities along with their osteogenic properties. Two different types of alendronate-loaded bone grafts, Bio-Oss (bovine bone graft) and InRoad (biphasic synthetic bone graft) were observed to see how different concentrations of alendronate would affect the sustained release to enhance osteogenesis. In this study, defected ovariectomize-induced osteoporotic rat calvarias were observed for 28 days with three different concentrations of alendronate (0 mg, 1 mg, 5 mg) for both Bio-Oss and InRoad. A higher concentration (5 mg) allowed for a more controlled and sustained release throughout the 28-day comparison to those of lower concentrations (0 mg, 1 mg). When comparing Bio-Oss and InRoad through histology and Micro-CT, InRoad showed higher enhancement in osteogenesis. Through this study, it was observed that alendronate not only brings out robust osteogenesis with InRoad bone grafts, but also enhances bone regeneration in an alendronate-concentration-dependent manner. The combination of higher concentration of alendronate and multiple porous bone graft containing internal micro-channel structure of InRoad resulted in higher osteogenesis with a sustained release of alendronate. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Bone Graft Materials)

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13 pages, 3847 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Sustainable Surface Modification of Polyetheretherketone (PEEK) Implants by Hydroxyapatite/Silica Coating—An In Vivo Animal Study

by Thomas Frankenberger, Constantin Leon Graw, Nadja Engel, Thomas Gerber, Bernhard Frerich and Michael Dau

Materials 2021, 14(16), 4589; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14164589 - 16 Aug 2021

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 2912

Abstract

Polyetheretherketone (PEEK) has the potential to overcome some of the disadvantages of titanium interbody implants in anterior cervical and discectomy and fusion (ACDF). However, PEEK shows an inferior biological behavior regarding osseointegration and bioactivity. Therefore, the aim of the study was to create [...] Read more.

Polyetheretherketone (PEEK) has the potential to overcome some of the disadvantages of titanium interbody implants in anterior cervical and discectomy and fusion (ACDF). However, PEEK shows an inferior biological behavior regarding osseointegration and bioactivity. Therefore, the aim of the study was to create a bioactive surface coating on PEEK implants with a unique nanopore structure enabling the generation of a long-lasting interfacial composite layer between coating material and implant. Seventy-two PEEK implants—each thirty-six pure PEEK implants (PI) and thirty-six PEEK implants with a sprayed coating consisting of nanocrystalline hydroxyapatite (ncHA) embedded in a silica matrix and interfacial composite layer (SPI)—were inserted in the femoral condyles of adult rats using a split-side model. After 2, 4 and 8 weeks, the femur bones were harvested. Half of the femur bones were used in histological and histomorphometrical analyses. Additionally, pull-out tests were performed in the second half. Postoperative healing was uneventful for all animals, and no postoperative complications were observed. Considerable crestal and medullary bone remodeling could be found around all implants, with faster bone formation around the SPI and fewer regions with fibrous tissue barriers between implant and bone. Histomorphometrical analyses showed a higher bone to implant contact (BIC) in SPI after 4 and 8 weeks (p < 0.05). Pull-out tests revealed higher pull-out forces in SPI at all time points (p < 0.01). The presented findings demonstrate that a combination of a bioactive coating and the permanent chemical and structural modified interfacial composite layer can improve bone formation at the implant surface by creating a sustainable bone-implant interface. This might be a promising way to overcome the bioinert surface property of PEEK-based implants. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Bone Graft Materials)

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14 pages, 5571 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Preliminary Animal Study on Bone Formation Ability of Commercialized Particle-Type Bone Graft with Increased Operability by Hydrogel

by So-Yeun Kim, You-Jin Lee, Won-Tak Cho, Su-Hyun Hwang, Soon-Chul Heo, Hyung-Joon Kim and Jung-Bo Huh

Materials 2021, 14(16), 4464; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14164464 - 9 Aug 2021

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2948

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the bone-generating ability of a new bovine-derived xenograft (S1-XB) containing hydrogel. For control purposes, we used Bio-Oss and Bone-XB bovine-derived xenografts. S1-XB was produced by mixing Bone-XB and hydrogel. Cell proliferation and differentiation studies were [...] Read more.

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the bone-generating ability of a new bovine-derived xenograft (S1-XB) containing hydrogel. For control purposes, we used Bio-Oss and Bone-XB bovine-derived xenografts. S1-XB was produced by mixing Bone-XB and hydrogel. Cell proliferation and differentiation studies were performed to assess cytotoxicities and cell responses. For in vivo study, 8 mm-sized cranial defects were formed in 16 rats, and then the bone substitutes were transplanted into defect sites in the four study groups, that is, a Bio-Oss group, a Bone-XB group, an S1-XB group, and a control (all n = 4); in the control group defects were left empty. Eight weeks after surgery, new bone formation areas were measured histomorphometrically. In the cell study, extracts of Bio-Oss, Bone-XB, and S1-XB showed good results in terms of the osteogenic differentiation of human mesenchymal stem cells (hMSCs) and no cytotoxic reaction was evident. No significant difference was observed between mean new bone areas in the Bio-Oss (36.93 ± 4.27%), Bone-XB (35.07 ± 3.23%), and S1-XB (30.80 ± 6.41%) groups, but new bone area was significantly smaller in the control group (18.73 ± 5.59%) (p < 0.05). Bovine-derived bone graft material containing hydrogel (S1-XB) had a better cellular response and an osteogenic effect similar to Bio-Oss. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Bone Graft Materials)

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12 pages, 2861 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Promotion of Bone Regeneration Using Bioinspired PLGA/MH/ECM Scaffold Combined with Bioactive PDRN

by Da-Seul Kim, Jun-Kyu Lee, Ji-Won Jung, Seung-Woon Baek, Jun Hyuk Kim, Yun Heo, Tae-Hyung Kim and Dong Keun Han

Materials 2021, 14(15), 4149; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14154149 - 26 Jul 2021

Cited by 28 | Viewed by 3565

Abstract

Current approaches of biomaterials for the repair of critical-sized bone defects still require immense effort to overcome numerous obstacles. The biodegradable polymer-based scaffolds have been required to expand further function for bone tissue engineering. Poly(lactic-co-glycolic) acid (PLGA) is one of the most common [...] Read more.

Current approaches of biomaterials for the repair of critical-sized bone defects still require immense effort to overcome numerous obstacles. The biodegradable polymer-based scaffolds have been required to expand further function for bone tissue engineering. Poly(lactic-co-glycolic) acid (PLGA) is one of the most common biopolymers owing to its biodegradability for tissue regenerations. However, there are major clinical challenges that the byproducts of the PLGA cause an acidic environment of implanting site. The critical processes in bone repair are osteogenesis, angiogenesis, and inhibition of excessive osteoclastogenesis. In this study, the porous PLGA (P) scaffold was combined with magnesium hydroxide (MH, M) and bone-extracellular matrix (bECM, E) to improve anti-inflammatory ability and osteoconductivity. Additionally, the bioactive polydeoxyribonucleotide (PDRN, P) was additionally incorporated in the existing PME scaffold. The prepared PMEP scaffold has pro-osteogenic and pro-angiogenic effects and inhibition of osteoclast due to the PDRN, which interacts with the adenosine A_2A receptor agonist that up-regulates expression of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and down-regulates inflammatory cytokines. The PMEP scaffold has superior biological properties for human bone-marrow mesenchymal stem cells (hBMSCs) adhesion, proliferation, and osteogenic differentiation in vitro. Moreover, the gene expressions related to osteogenesis and angiogenesis of hBMSCs increased and the inflammatory factors decreased on the PMEP scaffold. In conclusion, it provides a promising strategy and clinical potential candidate for bone tissue regeneration and repairing bone defects. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Bone Graft Materials)

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15 pages, 5871 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Settable Polymeric Autograft Extenders in a Rabbit Radius Model of Bone Formation

by Lauren A. Boller, Madison A.P. McGough, Stefanie M. Shiels, Craig L. Duvall, Joseph C. Wenke and Scott A. Guelcher

Materials 2021, 14(14), 3960; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14143960 - 15 Jul 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1946

Abstract

Autograft (AG) is the gold standard for bone grafts, but limited quantities and patient morbidity are associated with its use. AG extenders have been proposed to minimize the volume of AG while maintaining the osteoinductive properties of the implant. In this study, poly(ester [...] Read more.

Autograft (AG) is the gold standard for bone grafts, but limited quantities and patient morbidity are associated with its use. AG extenders have been proposed to minimize the volume of AG while maintaining the osteoinductive properties of the implant. In this study, poly(ester urethane) (PEUR) and poly(thioketal urethane) (PTKUR) AG extenders were implanted in a 20-mm rabbit radius defect model to evaluate new bone formation and graft remodeling. Outcomes including µCT and histomorphometry were measured at 12 weeks and compared to an AG (no polymer) control. AG control examples exhibited new bone formation, but inconsistent healing was observed. The implanted AG control was resorbed by 12 weeks, while AG extenders maintained implanted AG throughout the study. Bone growth from the defect interfaces was observed in both AG extenders, but residual polymer inhibited cellular infiltration and subsequent bone formation within the center of the implant. PEUR-AG extenders degraded more rapidly than PTKUR-AG extenders. These observations demonstrated that AG extenders supported new bone formation and that polymer composition did not have an effect on overall bone formation. Furthermore, the results indicated that early cellular infiltration is necessary for harnessing the osteoinductive capabilities of AG. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Bone Graft Materials)

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13 pages, 8606 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Gamma Radiation-Induced Crosslinking of Collagen Type I Coated Dental Titanium Implants on Osseointegration and Bone Regeneration

by Won-Tak Cho, So-Yeun Kim, Sung-In Jung, Seong-Soo Kang, Se-Eun Kim, Su-Hyun Hwang, Chang-Mo Jeong and Jung-Bo Huh

Materials 2021, 14(12), 3268; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14123268 - 13 Jun 2021

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2987

Abstract

This study aimed to compare two methods of crosslinking collagen type I on implanted titanium surfaces, that is, using glutaraldehyde (GA) or gamma-rays (GRs), in a beagle dog model. For in vivo experiments, implants were allocated to three groups and applied to mandibular [...] Read more.

This study aimed to compare two methods of crosslinking collagen type I on implanted titanium surfaces, that is, using glutaraldehyde (GA) or gamma-rays (GRs), in a beagle dog model. For in vivo experiments, implants were allocated to three groups and applied to mandibular bone defects in beagle dogs; Group SLA; non-treated Sandblasted, large grit, acid-etched (SLA) implants, Group GA; SLA implants coated with GA crosslinked collagen type I, Group GR; SLA surface implants coated with collagen type I and crosslinked using 25 kGy of ⁶⁰Co gamma radiation. New bone μCT volumes were obtained, and histologic and histometric analyses were performed in regions of interest. The GR group had significantly better new bone areas (NBAs) and bone to implant contact (BIC) results than the SLA group (p < 0.05), but the GA and GR groups were similar in this respect. New bone volumes and inter-thread bone densities (ITBD) were non-significantly different in the three groups (p > 0.05). Within the limits of this study, gamma-ray collagen crosslinking on titanium implants can be considered a substitute for glutaraldehyde crosslinking. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Bone Graft Materials)

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13 pages, 7950 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Influence of Hyaluronic Acid Biofunctionalization of a Bovine Bone Substitute on Osteoblast Activity In Vitro

by Solomiya Kyyak, Andreas Pabst, Diana Heimes and Peer W. Kämmerer

Materials 2021, 14(11), 2885; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14112885 - 27 May 2021

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 2430

Abstract

Bovine bone substitute materials (BSMs) are used for oral bone regeneration. The objective was to analyze the influence of BSM biofunctionalization via hyaluronic acid (HA) on human osteoblasts (HOBs). BSMs with ± HA were incubated with HOBs including HOBs alone as a negative [...] Read more.

Bovine bone substitute materials (BSMs) are used for oral bone regeneration. The objective was to analyze the influence of BSM biofunctionalization via hyaluronic acid (HA) on human osteoblasts (HOBs). BSMs with ± HA were incubated with HOBs including HOBs alone as a negative control. On days 3, 7 and 10, cell viability, migration and proliferation were analyzed by fluorescence staining, scratch wound assay and MTT assay. On days 3, 7 and 10, an increased cell viability was demonstrated for BSM+ compared with BSM− and the control (each p ≤ 0.05). The cell migration was enhanced for BSM+ compared with BSM− and the control after day 3 and day 7 (each p ≤ 0.05). At day 10, an accelerated wound closure was found for the control compared with BSM+/− (each p < 0.05). The highest proliferation rate was observed for BSM+ on day 3 (p ≤ 0.05) followed by BSM− and the control (each p ≤ 0.05). At day 7, a non-significantly increased proliferation was shown for BSM+ while the control was higher than BSM− (each p < 0.05). The least proliferation activity was observed for BSM− (p < 0.05) at day 10. HA biofunctionalization of the BSMs caused an increased HOB activity and might represent a promising alternative to BSM− in oral bone regeneration. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Bone Graft Materials)

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12 pages, 3958 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Mechanical Characterization of Human Trabecular and Formed Granulate Bone Cylinders Processed by High Hydrostatic Pressure

by Janine Waletzko-Hellwig, Michael Saemann, Marko Schulze, Bernhard Frerich, Rainer Bader and Michael Dau

Materials 2021, 14(5), 1069; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14051069 - 25 Feb 2021

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2223

Abstract

One main disadvantage of commercially available allogenic bone substitute materials is the altered mechanical behavior due to applied material processing, including sterilization methods like thermal processing or gamma irradiation. The use of high hydrostatic pressure (HHP) might be a gentle alternative to avoid [...] Read more.

One main disadvantage of commercially available allogenic bone substitute materials is the altered mechanical behavior due to applied material processing, including sterilization methods like thermal processing or gamma irradiation. The use of high hydrostatic pressure (HHP) might be a gentle alternative to avoid mechanical alteration. Therefore, we compressed ground trabecular human bone to granules and, afterwards, treated them with 250 and 300 MPa for 20 and 30 min respectively. We characterized the formed bone granule cylinders (BGC) with respect to their biomechanical properties by evaluating stiffness and stress at 15% strain. Furthermore, the stiffness and yield strength of HHP-treated and native human trabecular bone cylinders (TBC) as control were evaluated. The mechanical properties of native vs. HHP-treated TBCs as well as HHP-treated vs. untreated BGCs did not differ, independent of the applied HHP magnitude and duration. Our study suggests HHP treatment as a suitable alternative to current processing techniques for allogenic bone substitutes since no negative effects on mechanical properties occurred. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Bone Graft Materials)

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27 pages, 14481 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Physical/Chemical Properties and Resorption Behavior of a Newly Developed Ca/P/S-Based Bone Substitute Material

by Bing-Chen Yang, Jing-Wei Lee, Chien-Ping Ju and Jiin-Huey Chern Lin

Materials 2020, 13(16), 3458; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13163458 - 5 Aug 2020

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2929

Abstract

Properly regulating the resorption rate of a resorbable bone implant has long been a great challenge. This study investigates a series of physical/chemical properties, biocompatibility and the behavior of implant resorption and new bone formation of a newly developed Ca/P/S-based bone substitute material [...] Read more.

Properly regulating the resorption rate of a resorbable bone implant has long been a great challenge. This study investigates a series of physical/chemical properties, biocompatibility and the behavior of implant resorption and new bone formation of a newly developed Ca/P/S-based bone substitute material (Ezechbone^® Granule CBS-400). Experimental results show that CBS-400 is comprised majorly of HA and CSD, with a Ca/P/S atomic ratio of 54.6/39.2/6.2. After immersion in Hank’s solution for 7 days, the overall morphology, shape and integrity of CBS-400 granules remain similar to that of non-immersed samples without showing apparent collapse or disintegration. With immersion time, the pH value continues to increase to 6.55 after 7 days, and 7.08 after 14 days. Cytotoxicity, intracutaneous reactivity and skin sensitization tests demonstrate the good biocompatibility features of CBS-400. Rabbit implantation/histological observations indicate that the implanted granules are intimately bonded to the surrounding new bone at all times. The implant is not merely a degradable bone substitute, but its resorption and the formation of new cancellous bone proceed at the substantially same pace. After implantation for 12 weeks, about 85% of the implant has been resorbed. The newly-formed cancellous bone ratio quickly increases to >40% at 4 weeks, followed by a bone remodeling process toward normal cancellous bone, wherein the new cancellous bone ratio gradually tapers down to about 30% after 12 weeks. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Bone Graft Materials)

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13 pages, 3050 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Enhancement of Bone Ingrowth into a Porous Titanium Structure to Improve Osseointegration of Dental Implants: A Pilot Study in the Canine Model

by Ji-Youn Hong, Seok-Yeong Ko, Wonsik Lee, Yun-Young Chang, Su-Hwan Kim and Jeong-Ho Yun

Materials 2020, 13(14), 3061; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13143061 - 8 Jul 2020

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 3640

Abstract

A porous titanium structure was suggested to improve implant stability in the early healing period or in poor bone quality. This study investigated the effect of a porous structure on the osseointegration of dental implants. A total of 28 implants (14 implants in [...] Read more.

A porous titanium structure was suggested to improve implant stability in the early healing period or in poor bone quality. This study investigated the effect of a porous structure on the osseointegration of dental implants. A total of 28 implants (14 implants in each group) were placed in the posterior mandibles of four beagle dogs at 3 months after extraction. The control group included machined surface implants with an external implant–abutment connection, whereas test group implants had a porous titanium structure added to the apical portion. Resonance frequency analysis (RFA); removal torque values (RTV); and surface topographic and histometric parameters including bone-to-implant contact length and ratio, inter-thread bone area and ratio in total, and the coronal and apical parts of the implants were measured after 4 weeks of healing. RTV showed a significant difference between the groups after 4 weeks of healing (p = 0.032), whereas no difference was observed in RFA. In the test group, surface topography showed bone tissue integrated into the porous structures. In the apical part of the test group, all the histometric parameters exhibited significant increases compared to the control group. Within the limitations of this study, enhanced bone growth into the porous structure was achieved, which consequently improved osseointegration of the implant. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Bone Graft Materials)

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15 pages, 8125 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comparison of Bone Regeneration between Porcine-Derived and Bovine-Derived Xenografts in Rat Calvarial Defects: A Non-Inferiority Study

by Eun-Bin Bae, Ha-Jin Kim, Jong-Ju Ahn, Hyun-Young Bae, Hyung-Joon Kim and Jung-Bo Huh

Materials 2019, 12(20), 3412; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma12203412 - 18 Oct 2019

Cited by 23 | Viewed by 4472

Abstract

The present study aimed to compare the bone-regeneration capacity of porcine-derived xenografts to bovine-derived xenografts in the rat calvarial defect model. The observation of surface morphology and in vitro cell studies were conducted prior to the animal study. Defects with a diameter of [...] Read more.

The present study aimed to compare the bone-regeneration capacity of porcine-derived xenografts to bovine-derived xenografts in the rat calvarial defect model. The observation of surface morphology and in vitro cell studies were conducted prior to the animal study. Defects with a diameter of 8 mm were created in calvaria of 20 rats. The rats were randomly treated with porcine-derived (Bone-XP group) or bovine-derived xenografts (Bio-Oss group) and sacrificed at 4 and 8 weeks after surgery. The new bone regeneration was evaluated by micro-computed tomography (μCT) and histomorphometric analyses. In the cell study, the extracts of Bone-XP and Bio-Oss showed a positive effect on the regulation of osteogenic differentiation of human mesenchymal stem cells (hMSCs) without cytotoxicity. The new bone volume of Bone-XP (17.52 ± 3.78% at 4 weeks and 32.09 ± 3.51% at 8 weeks) was similar to that of Bio-Oss (11.6 ± 3.88% at 4 weeks and 25.89 ± 7.43% at 8 weeks) (p > 0.05). In the results of new bone area, there was no significant difference between Bone-XP (9.08 ± 5.47% at 4 weeks and 25.22 ± 13.56% at 8 weeks) and Bio-Oss groups (5.83 ± 2.56% at 4 weeks and 21.68 ± 11.11% at 8 weeks) (p > 0.05). It can be concluded that the porcine-derived bone substitute may offer a favorable cell response and bone regeneration similar to those of commercial bovine bone mineral. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Bone Graft Materials)

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14 pages, 5272 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Bone Regeneration Using a Three-Dimensional Hexahedron Channeled BCP Block Combined with Bone Morphogenic Protein-2 in Rat Calvarial Defects

by So-Yeun Kim, Eun-Bin Bae, Jae-Woong Huh, Jong-Ju Ahn, Hyun-Young Bae, Won-Tak Cho and Jung-Bo Huh

Materials 2019, 12(15), 2435; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma12152435 - 31 Jul 2019

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2587

Abstract

It is important to obtain sufficient bone mass before implant placement on alveolar bone, and synthetic bone such as biphasic calcium phosphate (BCP) has been studied to secure this. This study used a BCP block bone with a specific structure of the three-dimensional [...] Read more.

It is important to obtain sufficient bone mass before implant placement on alveolar bone, and synthetic bone such as biphasic calcium phosphate (BCP) has been studied to secure this. This study used a BCP block bone with a specific structure of the three-dimensional (3D) hexahedron channel and coating with recombinant human bone morphogenetic protein-2 (rhBMP-2) impregnated carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) was used to examine the enhancement of bone regeneration of this biomaterial in rat calvarial defect. After the preparation of critical-size calvarial defects in fifteen rats, defects were divided into three groups and were implanted with the assigned specimen (n = 5): Boneplant (untreated 3D hexahedron channeled BCP block), Boneplant/CMC (3D hexahedron channeled BCP block coated with CMC), and Boneplant/CMC/BMP (3D hexahedron channeled BCP block coated with CMC containing rhBMP-2). After 4 weeks, the volumetric, histologic, and histometric analyses were conducted to measure the newly formed bone. Histologically, defects in the Boneplant/CMC/BMP group were almost completely filled with new bone compared to the Boneplant and Boneplant/CMC groups. The new bone volume (P < 0.05) and area (P < 0.001) in the Boneplant/CMC/BMP group (20.12% ± 2.17, 33.79% ± 3.66) were much greater than those in the Boneplant (10.77% ± 4.8, 16.48% ± 9.11) and Boneplant/CMC (10.72% ± 3.29, 16.57% ± 8.94) groups, respectively. In conclusion, the 3D hexahedron channeled BCP block adapted rhBMP-2 with carrier CMC showed high possibility as an effective bone graft material. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Bone Graft Materials)

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