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A special issue of Materials (ISSN 1996-1944). This special issue belongs to the section "Construction and Building Materials".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (20 March 2022) | Viewed by 22146

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Prof. Dr. Guillaume Habert

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Guest Editor

Department of Civil, Environmental and Geomatic Engineering, ETH Zurich, Switzerland
Interests: life cycle assessment; climate neutral buildings; waste valorization; low carbon cement; sustainability assessment; applied clay science; earth construction; engineered natural building materials
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. Emmanuel Keita

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Guest Editor

Laboratoire Navier, Université Gustave Eiffel, Champs Sur Marne, France
Interests: material science; porous media; image analysis; nanomaterials; earth construction; concrete material technology; waste valorization; 3D printing

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Traces of earthen architecture date to 10,000 years ago, and earthen-based building materials are still used in most climates and societies. Without transport and with infinite recycling possibilities, earth is among the building materials which have the lowest environmental impact, and very efficient temperature and moisture regulation properties for indoor living spaces. Earth construction is currently under strong development, likely due to environmental concerns. However, this development is limited because the conventional earth construction techniques are both time-consuming and labor-intensive. Moreover, earthen materials lack dedicated standards. In contrast, cement is an incredibly easy-to-use material but has a significant environmental impact. Substantial engineering and scientific efforts have been invested to improve the understanding and processing of cement-based concrete, but only slight engineering improvement has been made for earth.

Earth material is readily available, but widening its use in to contemporary cities urges us to invent constructive technologies which could facilitate a quick use of excavated earth on site. This would drive the construction sector towards a closing material loop and engage the sector transition into circular economy.

The current Special Issue aims to gather recent developments in the understanding of earth-based building material. The articles presented in this Special Issue will cover various topics, ranging from but not limited to interactions between clay platelets, mechanical behavior of vernacular techniques, development of new processes, structure stability and durability. The SI will also draw future perspectives.

Prof. Dr. Guillaume Habert
Dr. Emmanuel Keita
Guest Editors

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Keywords

Compacted Earth Blocks
Extruded Earth Blocks
Poured Earth
Rammed Earth
Plastering
Coating protection
Applied clay science
Bio-based reinforcement
Mix design
Processing
Thermo-Hydro-Mechanical behaviour
Durability
Life Cycle Assessment

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Published Papers (6 papers)

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Research

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15 pages, 6992 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Physical, Hydric, Thermal and Mechanical Properties of Earth Renders Amended with Dolomitic Lime

by Halidou Bamogo, Moussa Ouedraogo, Issiaka Sanou, Jean-Emmanuel Aubert and Younoussa Millogo

Materials 2022, 15(11), 4014; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15114014 - 6 Jun 2022

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2131

Abstract

The global objective of this work was to manufacture resistant and durable (water resistant) earth renders with good thermal insulation. For this purpose, a medium plastic clayey soil from Kôdéni (Burkina Faso), constituted by kaolinite (62 wt.%), quartz (31 wt.%), and goethite (2 wt.%), was mixed with dolomitic lime (up to 6 wt.%) to manufacture earth renders. The mineralogical, microstructural, and chemical characteristics of dolomitic lime, as well as the physical (linear shrinkage, apparent density, and accessible porosity), hydric (water absorption test by capillarity and spray test), thermal (thermal conductivity), and mechanical (abrasion resistance, flexural, and compressive strengths) properties of the earth renders were evaluated. From these studies, it appears that the addition of dolomitic lime induces the formation of calcium silicate (CSH) and magnesium silicate (MSH) hydrates. These CSH and MSH are mainly formed from the pozzolanic reaction between finely ground quartz and the weak silica of kaolinite in basic media. These formed hydrates improve the physical, hydric, thermal, and mechanical properties of earth renders. This improvement is due to the fact that the formed CSH and MSH stick to the isolated particles of the soil, making them more compact. In view of the good mechanical strength and water resistance, as well as the low thermal conductivity, the elaborated earth renders are suitable for habitats with dry climates, such as the Sahel. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Earth-Based Building Materials)

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24 pages, 6134 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Mechanical and Microstructural Characterization of Rammed Earth Stabilized with Five Biopolymers

by Alessia Emanuela Losini, Anne-Cecile Grillet, Monika Woloszyn, Liudmila Lavrik, Chiara Moletti, Giovanni Dotelli and Marco Caruso

Materials 2022, 15(9), 3136; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15093136 - 26 Apr 2022

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 3232

Abstract

This study aims to check the compatibility of a selection of waste and recycled biopolymers for rammed earth applications in order to replace the more common cement-based stabilization. Five formulations of stabilized rammed earth were prepared with different biopolymers: lignin sulfonate, tannin, sheep wool fibers, citrus pomace and grape-seed flour. The microstructure of the different formulations was characterized by investigating the interactions between earth and stabilizers through mercury intrusion porosimetry (MIP), nitrogen soprtion isotherm, powder X-ray diffraction (XRD) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The unconfined compressive strength (UCS) was also evaluated for all stabilized specimens. Three out of five biopolymers were considered suitable as rammed earth stabilizers. The use of wool increased the UCS by 6%, probably thanks to the combined effect of the length of the fibers and the roughness of their surfaces, which gives a contribution in binding clay particles higher than citrus and grape-seed flour. Lignin sulfonate and tannin increased the UCS by 38% and 13%, respectively, suggesting the additives’ ability to fill pores, coat soil grains and form aggregates; this capability is confirmed by the reduction in the specific surface area and the pore volume in the nano- and micropore zones. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Earth-Based Building Materials)

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18 pages, 9821 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Biomineralisation to Increase Earth Infrastructure Resilience

by Ana Bras, Hazha Mohammed, Abbie Romano and Ismini Nakouti

Materials 2022, 15(7), 2490; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15072490 - 28 Mar 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2169

Abstract

The vulnerability of buildings and structures to rain and flooding due to a lack of adaptive capacity is an issue all over the world. Exploring the bio-resources availability and engineering performance is crucial to increase infrastructure’s resilience. The current study analyses earth-based mortars using mineral precipitation as a biostabiliser (bio) and compares their performance with cement-based mortars. Cultures of S. oneidensis with a concentration of 2.3 × 10⁸ cfu/mL were used to prepare earth-based and cement-based mortars with a ratio of 6% of binder. Microstructure analyses through SEM/EDS, water absorption, moisture buffering, mechanical strength, and porosity are discussed. The biostabiliser decreases water absorption in tidal-splash and saturated environments for earth and cement mortars due to calcium carbonate precipitation. The biostabiliser can prevent water migration more effectively for the cement-based (60% reduction) than for the earth-based mortars (up to 10% reduction) in the first 1 h of contact with water. In an adsorption/desorption environment, the conditions favour desorption in cem+bio, and it seems that the biostabiliser precipitation facilitates the release of the chemicals into the mobile phase. The precipitation in the earth+bio mortar porous media conditions favours the adsorption of water molecules, making the molecule adhere to the stationary phase and be separated from the other sample chemicals. The SEM/EDS performed for the mortars confirms the calcium carbonate precipitation and shows that there is a decrease in the quantity of Si and K if the biostabiliser is used in cement and earth-mortars. This decrease, associated with the ability of S. oneidensis to leach silica, is more impressive for earth+bio, which might be associated with a dissolution of silicate structures due to the presence of more water. For the tested earth-based mortars, there was an increase of 10% for compressive and flexural strength if the biostabiliser was added. For the cement-based mortars, the strength increase was almost double that of the plain one due to the clay surface negative charge in the earth-based compositions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Earth-Based Building Materials)

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19 pages, 6038 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Influence of Clay Structures to the Hygrothermal Component of the Indoor Environment

by Jakub Diviš and Jan Růžička

Materials 2022, 15(5), 1744; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15051744 - 25 Feb 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1857

Abstract

In this article, research on the sorption properties of clay materials in comparison with commonly used building materials is published. The topic is mainly focused on the dynamic sorption properties and their influence on the relative humidity in the indoor environment. The results of comparisons of clay structures, rammed earth panels, clay plaster, and unburned bricks, with commonly used building materials, concrete, lime plaster, and gypsum board are examined. Statistically evaluated results in the form of confidence intervals are presented and the rate of dynamic sorption is analyzed. It is clear from the results that clay materials have a positive effect on the rapid adsorption and desorption of air moisture in the interior of buildings. However, there are many variables, band not every clay material has such excellent sorption properties. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Earth-Based Building Materials)

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14 pages, 5853 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Numerical Simulations of the Soil–Rock Mixture Mechanical Properties Considering the Influence of Rock Block Proportions by PFC2D

by Wenwei Gao, Hairong Yang, Le Wang and Ruilin Hu

Materials 2021, 14(18), 5442; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14185442 - 20 Sep 2021

Cited by 23 | Viewed by 2765

Abstract

Soil-rock mixtures (S-RMs), as a kind of special engineering geological material, need to be studied because of the special structure and complex movement mechanism of their rock blocks, their physical and mechanical properties, and the factors underlying rock block movement in the process of their deformation and failure. In this paper, a series of discrete-element numerical models are constructed in particle flow code software (PFC^2D). First, the random structure numerical models of S-RMs with different rock block proportions are established. Then, the parameters of the soil meso-structure are inversed by the biaxial simulation test, and a series of biaxial compressive tests are performed. The characteristics of stress and strain, deformation and failure, and rock block rotation and energy evolution are systematically investigated. The results show the following. (1) As the rock block proportion (confining pressure 0.5 MPa) increases, the peak strength of increases, the fluctuations of the post-peak become more obvious, and the dilatancy of the sample increases. (2) As the rock block proportion increases, the width of the shear band increases, the distribution of cracks becomes more complex and dispersed, and the range of the shear zone increases. (3) The number of rock blocks with rotation also increases significantly as rock block proportion increases, and the rotation angles are mostly between −5° and 5°. (4) The strain energy of S-RMs with different rock block proportions follows the same change rule as axial strain, showing a trend of first increasing and then decreasing, like the stress–strain curve. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Earth-Based Building Materials)

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Review

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30 pages, 4273 KiB

Open AccessReview

Advances in Enzyme Induced Carbonate Precipitation and Application to Soil Improvement: A Review

by Ahsan Saif, Alessia Cuccurullo, Domenico Gallipoli, Céline Perlot and Agostino Walter Bruno

Materials 2022, 15(3), 950; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15030950 - 26 Jan 2022

Cited by 27 | Viewed by 7085

Abstract

Climate change and global warming have prompted a notable shift towards sustainable geotechnics and construction materials within the geotechnical engineer’s community. Earthen construction materials, in particular, are considered sustainable due to their inherent characteristics of having low embodied and operational energies, fire resistance, and ease of recyclability. Despite these attributes, they have not been part of the mainstream construction due to their susceptibility to water-induced deterioration. Conventional soil improvement techniques are generally expensive, energy-intensive, and environmentally harmful. Recently, biostabilization has emerged as a sustainable alternative that can overcome some of the limitations of existing soil improvement methods. Enzyme-induced carbonate precipitation (EICP) is a particularly promising technique due to its ease of application and compatibility with different soil types. EICP exploits the urease enzyme as a catalyst to promote the hydrolysis of urea inside the pore water, which, in the presence of calcium ions, results in the precipitation of calcium carbonate. The purpose of this paper is to provide a state-of-the-art review of EICP stabilization, highlighting the potential application of this technique to field problems and identifying current research gaps. The paper discusses recent progress, focusing on the most important factors that govern the efficiency of the chemical reactions and the precipitation of a spatially homogenous carbonate phase. The paper also discusses other aspects of EICP stabilization, including the degree of ground improvement, the prediction of the pore structure of the treated soil by numerical simulations, and the remediation of potentially toxic EICP by-products. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Earth-Based Building Materials)

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