Materials

Research

23 pages, 3052 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Modeling of Friction Phenomena of Ti-6Al-4V Sheets Based on Backward Elimination Regression and Multi-Layer Artificial Neural Networks

by Tomasz Trzepieciński, Marcin Szpunar and Ľuboš Kaščák

Materials 2021, 14(10), 2570; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14102570 - 15 May 2021

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 2567

Abstract

This paper presents the application of multi-layer artificial neural networks (ANNs) and backward elimination regression for the prediction of values of the coefficient of friction (COF) of Ti-6Al-4V titanium alloy sheets. The results of the strip drawing test were used as data for [...] Read more.

This paper presents the application of multi-layer artificial neural networks (ANNs) and backward elimination regression for the prediction of values of the coefficient of friction (COF) of Ti-6Al-4V titanium alloy sheets. The results of the strip drawing test were used as data for the training networks. The strip drawing test was carried out under conditions of variable load and variable friction. Selected types of synthetic oils and environmentally friendly bio-degradable lubricants were used in the tests. ANN models were conducted for different network architectures and training methods: the quasi-Newton, Levenberg-Marquardt and back propagation. The values of root mean square (RMS) error and determination coefficient were adopted as evaluation criteria for ANNs. The minimum value of the RMS error for the training set (RMS = 0.0982) and the validation set (RMS = 0.1493) with the highest value of correlation coefficient (R² = 0.91) was observed for a multi-layer network with eight neurons in the hidden layer trained using the quasi-Newton algorithm. As a result of the non-linear relationship between clamping and friction force, the value of the COF decreased with increasing load. The regression model F-value of 22.13 implies that the model with R² = 0.6975 is significant. There is only a 0.01% chance that an F-value this large could occur due to noise. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Metal Forming Processes)

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10 pages, 3891 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Adjusting the Residual Stress State in Wire Drawing Products via In-Process Modification of Tool Geometries

by Markus Baumann, René Selbmann, Matthias Milbrandt, Verena Kräusel and Markus Bergmann

Materials 2021, 14(9), 2157; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14092157 - 23 Apr 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2909

Abstract

After conventional forming processes, the residual stress distribution in wires is frequently unfavorable for subsequent processes, such as bending operations. High tensile residual stresses typically occur near the wire surface and normally limit further processability of the material. Additional heat treatment operations or [...] Read more.

After conventional forming processes, the residual stress distribution in wires is frequently unfavorable for subsequent processes, such as bending operations. High tensile residual stresses typically occur near the wire surface and normally limit further processability of the material. Additional heat treatment operations or shot peening are often used to influence the residual stress distribution in the material after conventional manufacturing, which is time- and energy-consuming. This paper presents an approach for influencing the residual stress distribution by modifying the forming process, especially regarding die geometry. The aim is to reduce the resulting tensile stress levels near the surface. Specific forming elements are integrated into the dies to achieve this residual stress reduction. These modifications in the forming zone have a significant influence on process properties, such as plastic strain and deformation direction, but typically do not influence product geometry. This paper describes the theoretical approach and model setup, the FE simulation, and the results of the experimental tests. The characterization of the residual stress states in the specimen was carried out through X-ray diffraction using the sin²Ψ method. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Metal Forming Processes)

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16 pages, 8225 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Hot Gas Pressure Forming of Ti-55 High Temperature Titanium Alloy Tubular Component

by Kehuan Wang, Chenyu Shi, Shiqiang Zhu, Yongming Wang, Jintao Shi and Gang Liu

Materials 2020, 13(20), 4636; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13204636 - 17 Oct 2020

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2267

Abstract

In this paper, hot gas pressure forming (HGPF) of Ti-55 high temperature titanium alloy was studied. The hot deformation behavior was studied by uniaxial tensile tests at temperatures ranging from 750 to 900 °C with strain rates ranging from 0.001 to 0.05 s [...] Read more.

In this paper, hot gas pressure forming (HGPF) of Ti-55 high temperature titanium alloy was studied. The hot deformation behavior was studied by uniaxial tensile tests at temperatures ranging from 750 to 900 °C with strain rates ranging from 0.001 to 0.05 s⁻¹, and the microstructure evolution during tensile tests was characterized by electron backscatter diffraction. Finite element (FE) simulation of HGPF was carried out to study the effect of axial feeding on thickness distribution. Forming tests were performed to validate this process for Ti-55 alloy. Results show that when the temperature was higher than 750 °C, the elongation was large enough for HGPF of Ti-55 alloy. Dynamic recrystallization (DRX) occurred during the tensile deformation, which could refine the microstructure. The thickness uniformity of the formed part could be improved by increasing feeding length. The maximum thinning ratio decreased from 27.7% to 11.5% with the feeding length increasing from 0 to 20 mm. A qualified Ti-55 alloy component was successfully formed at 850 °C, the microstructure was slightly refined after forming, and the average post-form yield strength and peak strength were increased by 8.7% and 6.9%, respectively. Pre-heat treatment at 950 °C before HGPF could obtain Ti-55 alloy tubular component with bimodal microstructure and further improve the post-form strength. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Metal Forming Processes)

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15 pages, 4892 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Case Study of the Tensile Fracture Investigation of Additive Manufactured Austenitic Stainless Steels Treated at Cryogenic Conditions

by Róbert Bidulský, Jana Bidulská, Federico Simone Gobber, Tibor Kvačkaj, Patrik Petroušek, Marco Actis-Grande, Klaus-Peter Weiss and Diego Manfredi

Materials 2020, 13(15), 3328; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13153328 - 27 Jul 2020

Cited by 47 | Viewed by 4366

Abstract

Additive manufacturing is a key enabling technology in the manufacture of highly complex shapes, having very few geometric limitations compared to traditional manufacturing processes. The present paper aims at investigating mechanical properties at cryogenic temperatures for a 316L austenitic stainless steel, due to [...] Read more.

Additive manufacturing is a key enabling technology in the manufacture of highly complex shapes, having very few geometric limitations compared to traditional manufacturing processes. The present paper aims at investigating mechanical properties at cryogenic temperatures for a 316L austenitic stainless steel, due to the wide possible cryogenic applications such as liquid gas confinement or superconductors. The starting powders have been processed by laser powder bed fusion (LPBF) and tested in the as-built conditions and after stress relieving treatments. Mechanical properties at 298, 77 and 4.2 K from tensile testing are presented together with fracture surfaces investigated by field emission scanning electron microscopy. The results show that high tensile strength at cryogenic temperature is characteristic for all samples, with ultimate tensile strength as high as 1246 MPa at 4.2 K and 55% maximum total elongation at 77 K. This study can constitute a solid basis for investigating 316L components by LPBF for specific applications in cryogenic conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Metal Forming Processes)

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9 pages, 6551 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Preparation of High-Nitrogen Ductile Iron by Injecting Nitrogen Gas in Molten Iron

by Lifeng Tong, Shichao Liu, Jinchuan Jie and Tingju Li

Materials 2020, 13(11), 2508; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13112508 - 31 May 2020

Viewed by 2736

Abstract

High-nitrogen ductile iron (DI) was prepared by a new method of injecting nitrogen gas into molten iron and nodularizing treatment. The microstructure and mechanical properties of the as-prepared DI for different nitrogen gas injection periods were characterized. The graphite morphology gradually deteriorated with [...] Read more.

High-nitrogen ductile iron (DI) was prepared by a new method of injecting nitrogen gas into molten iron and nodularizing treatment. The microstructure and mechanical properties of the as-prepared DI for different nitrogen gas injection periods were characterized. The graphite morphology gradually deteriorated with the increase in the nitrogen gas injection time. The maximum nitrogen and pearlite contents were obtained after 20 min of nitrogen gas injection, and the corresponding tensile strength and elongation of the DI were calculated as 492 MPa and 9.5%, respectively, which were 9.3% and 22% higher than those of the DI prepared without the nitrogen gas injection treatment, respectively. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Metal Forming Processes)

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12 pages, 3948 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Analysis of Pressed Cups Producing Possibilities from Rolled Bimetallic Al-1050 + Cu-M1E Sheets

by Dariusz Rydz, Grzegorz Stradomski, Arkadiusz Szarek, Katarzyna Kubik and Piotr Kordas

Materials 2020, 13(10), 2413; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13102413 - 25 May 2020

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3079

Abstract

Drawability tests of metal sheets are known and used as technological processes that allow assessing possibilities of plastic forming. One such test is the cupping test, which is very useful for examining thin sheets of both uniform and multilayer materials. In this work, [...] Read more.

Drawability tests of metal sheets are known and used as technological processes that allow assessing possibilities of plastic forming. One such test is the cupping test, which is very useful for examining thin sheets of both uniform and multilayer materials. In this work, a comprehensive analysis of the shaping of the bimetallic product Al–Cu (Al-1050 + Cu-M1E) was carried out. The research covers the entire production cycle, from explosive-welding, through asymmetric rolling (ASR) to deep drawing. The scientific and cognitive aspect of the work is to determine the potential of plastic-forming processes without the need for interoperational heat treatments. Tests were carried out for two variants of bimetals used in tools: matrix–Al-1050 + Cu-M1E and matrix–Cu-M1E + Al-1050. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Metal Forming Processes)

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17 pages, 6265 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Mechanism of the Microstructural Evolution of 18Cr2Ni4WA Steel during Vacuum Low-Pressure Carburizing Heat Treatment and Its Effect on Case Hardness

by Bin Wang, Yanping He, Ye Liu, Yong Tian, Jinglin You, Zhaodong Wang and Guodong Wang

Materials 2020, 13(10), 2352; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13102352 - 20 May 2020

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 3810

Abstract

In this study, vacuum low-pressure carburizing heat treatments were carried out on 18Cr2Ni4WA case-carburized alloy steel. The evolution and phase transformation mechanism of the microstructure of the carburized layer during low-temperature tempering and its effect on the surface hardness were studied. The results [...] Read more.

In this study, vacuum low-pressure carburizing heat treatments were carried out on 18Cr2Ni4WA case-carburized alloy steel. The evolution and phase transformation mechanism of the microstructure of the carburized layer during low-temperature tempering and its effect on the surface hardness were studied. The results showed that the carburized layer of the 18Cr2Ni4WA steel was composed of a large quantity of martensite and retained austenite. The type of martensite matrix changed from acicular martensite to lath martensite from the surface to the core. The hardness of the carburized layer gradually decreased as the carbon content decreased. A thermodynamic model was used to show that the low-carbon retained austenite was easier to transform into martensite at lower temperatures, since the high-carbon retained austenite was more thermally stable than the low-carbon retained austenite. The mechanical stability—not the thermal stability—of the retained austenite in the carburized layer dominated after carburizing and quenching, and cryogenic treatment had a limited effect on promoting the martensite formation. During low-temperature tempering, the solid-solution carbon content of the martensite decreased, the compressive stress on the retained austenite was reduced and the mechanical stability of the retained austenite decreased. Therefore, during cooling after low-temperature tempering, the low-carbon retained austenite transformed into martensite, whereas the high-carbon retained austenite still remained in the microstructure. The changes in the martensite matrix hardness had a far greater effect than the transformation of the retained austenite to martensite on the case hardness of the carburized layer. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Metal Forming Processes)

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14 pages, 4993 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Influence of Severe Plastic Deformation and Subsequent Annealing on the Microstructure and Hardness of a Cu–Cr–Zr Alloy

by Garima Kapoor, Tibor Kvackaj, Anita Heczel, Jana Bidulská, Róbert Kočiško, Zsolt Fogarassy, Dusan Simcak and Jenő Gubicza

Materials 2020, 13(10), 2241; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13102241 - 13 May 2020

Cited by 22 | Viewed by 2778

Abstract

A Cu–1.1%Cr–0.04%Zr (wt.%) alloy was processed by severe plastic deformation (SPD) using the equal channel angular pressing (ECAP) technique at room temperature (RT). It was found that when the number of passes increased from one to four, the dislocation density significantly increased by [...] Read more.

A Cu–1.1%Cr–0.04%Zr (wt.%) alloy was processed by severe plastic deformation (SPD) using the equal channel angular pressing (ECAP) technique at room temperature (RT). It was found that when the number of passes increased from one to four, the dislocation density significantly increased by 35% while the crystallite size decreased by 32%. Subsequent rolling at RT did not influence considerably the crystallite size and dislocation density. At the same time, cryorolling at liquid nitrogen temperature yielded a much higher dislocation density. All the samples contained Cr particles with an average size of 1 µm. Both the size and fraction of the Cr particles did not change during the increase in ECAP passes and the application of rolling after ECAP. The hardness of the severely deformed Cu alloy samples can be well correlated to the dislocation density using the Taylor equation. Heat treatment at 430 °C for 30 min in air caused a significant reduction in the dislocation density for all the deformed samples, while the hardness considerably increased. This apparent contradiction can be explained by the solute oxygen hardening, but the annihilation of mobile dislocations during annealing may also contribute to hardening. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Metal Forming Processes)

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14 pages, 3472 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Laser Operating Windows Prediction in Selective Laser-Melting Processing of Metallic Powders: Development and Validation of a Computational Fluid Dynamics-Based Model

by Maria Rita Ridolfi, Paolo Folgarait and Andrea Di Schino

Materials 2020, 13(6), 1424; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13061424 - 20 Mar 2020

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2618

Abstract

The rapidly ascending trend of additive manufacturing techniques requires a tailoring of existing solidification models and the development of new numerical tools. User-friendly numerical models can be a valid aid in order to optimize operating parameter ranges with the scope to extend the [...] Read more.

The rapidly ascending trend of additive manufacturing techniques requires a tailoring of existing solidification models and the development of new numerical tools. User-friendly numerical models can be a valid aid in order to optimize operating parameter ranges with the scope to extend the modelling tools to already existing or innovative alloys. In this paper a modelling approach is described simulating the generation of single tracks on a powder bed system in a selective laser melting process. The approach we report attains track geometry as a function of: alloy thermo-physical properties, laser speed and power, powder bed thickness. Aim of the research is to generate a numerical tool able to predict laser power and speed ranges in manufacturing porosity-free printed parts without lack of fusion and keyhole pores. The approach is based on a simplified description of the physical aspects. Main simplifications concern: the laser energy input, the formation of the pool cavity, and the powder bed thermo-physical properties. The model has been adjusted based on literature data providing the track’s geometry (width and depth) and relative density. Such data refer to different alloys. In particular, Ti6Al4V, Inconel625, Al7050, 316L and pure copper are considered. We show that the printing process presents features common to all alloys. This allows the model to predict the printing behavior of an alloy from its physical properties, avoiding the need to perform specific experimental activities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Metal Forming Processes)

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17 pages, 10653 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Mechanism of Continuous Melting and Secondary Contact Melting in Resistance Heating Metal Wire Additive Manufacturing

by Chengwei Yuan, Shujun Chen, Fan Jiang, Bin Xu and Shanwen Dong

Materials 2020, 13(5), 1069; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13051069 - 28 Feb 2020

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3187

Abstract

Resistance heating metal wire materials additive manufacturing technology is of great significance for space environment maintenance and manufacturing. However, the continuous deposition process has a problem in which the metal melt is disconnected from the base metal. In order to study the difference [...] Read more.

Resistance heating metal wire materials additive manufacturing technology is of great significance for space environment maintenance and manufacturing. However, the continuous deposition process has a problem in which the metal melt is disconnected from the base metal. In order to study the difference between the second contact melting of the disconnected metal melt and the continuous melting of the metal wire as well as eliminate the problem of the uneven heat dissipation of the base metal deposition on the melting process of the metal wire, the physical test of melting the metal wire clamped by the equal diameter conductive nozzle was carried out from the aspects of temperature distribution, temperature change, melting time, dynamic resistance change, and the microstructure. The current, wire length, and diameter of the metal wire are used as variables. It was found that the dynamic resistance change of the wire can be matched with the melting state. During the solid-state temperature rise, due to the presence of the contact interface, the continuous melting and secondary contact melting of metal wires differ in dynamic resistance and the melting process. The continuous melting of the metal wire was caused by the overall resistance of the wire to generate heat and melt, and the temperature distribution is “bow-shaped”. In the second contact melting, the heat generated by the contact interface resistance was transferred to both ends of the metal wire to melt, and the temperature distribution is “inverted V”. The microstructure of the metal wire continuous melting and secondary contact melting solidification is similar. The continuous melting length of the metal wire is greater than the melting length of the secondary contact. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Metal Forming Processes)

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12 pages, 5309 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Investigation of Sheet Metal Forming Using a Rapid Compression Machine

by Sandeep P. Patil, Yann Fenard, Shridhar Bailkeri, Karl Alexander Heufer and Bernd Markert

Materials 2019, 12(23), 3957; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma12233957 - 29 Nov 2019

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2919

Abstract

The primary goal of this work is to understand the deformation behavior of an aluminum alloy (Al) workpiece by using a rapid compression machine (RCM). The primary novelty in this work is that this is the first study on sheet metal forming using [...] Read more.

The primary goal of this work is to understand the deformation behavior of an aluminum alloy (Al) workpiece by using a rapid compression machine (RCM). The primary novelty in this work is that this is the first study on sheet metal forming using RCM. Numerical simulation and experimental results are in excellent agreement, e.g., the dome-shape, the maximum height, the final outer diameter, and the thickness distribution of the deformed workpiece. We demonstrate that the maximum deformation height grows linearly with the peak pressure with an intercept tending to zero. The proposed linear relationship can be effectively used for designing new components for a specific application. Moreover, the proposed numerical model was competent in reproducing the experimental results of damage initiation and evolution in case of high peak pressure as well as the initial misalignment of the workpiece. The results of this investigation revealed that a rapid compression machine can be utilized efficiently for the controlled forming of complex shapes of metal sheets. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Metal Forming Processes)

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15 pages, 9087 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Study on the Forming Process and Deformation Behavior of Inner Ring in the Wheel Hub Bearing Based on Riveting Assembly

by Wei Xiong, You Wang, Xiao-Ping Li, Song Mei and Zhu-Xin Tian

Materials 2019, 12(22), 3785; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma12223785 - 18 Nov 2019

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 4441

Abstract

The orbital riveting process has been successively adopted in the assembly of wheel hub bearing, due to its special merits of high efficiency, low cost, and so on. The forming process and deformation behavior of the inner ring have significant influence on the [...] Read more.

The orbital riveting process has been successively adopted in the assembly of wheel hub bearing, due to its special merits of high efficiency, low cost, and so on. The forming process and deformation behavior of the inner ring have significant influence on the axial clamping force and bearing clearance, however, which haven’t been addressed yet. In this study, a numerical simulation platform for the assembly of the hub bearing is established by the joint use of the static implicit and dynamic explicit algorithms. Based on the platform, the deformation process and deformation behavior of the inner ring are investigated, along with the interference assembly and riveting assembly on the loading process of the inner ring. Finally, relevant experimental verifications are carried out to consolidate the simulation results. The research findings could be used to guide the design and optimization of the axial clamping force and bearing clearance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Metal Forming Processes)

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13 pages, 5300 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Different Formation Routes of Pore Structure in Aluminum Powder Metallurgy Alloy

by Jana Bidulská, Róbert Bidulský, Marco Actis Grande and Tibor Kvačkaj

Materials 2019, 12(22), 3724; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma12223724 - 11 Nov 2019

Cited by 34 | Viewed by 3027

Abstract

In powder metallurgy (PM), severe plastic deformation (SPD) is a well-known technological solution to achieve interesting properties. However, the occurrence of pores in the final product may limit these properties. Also, for a given type of microstructure, the stereometric parameters of the pore [...] Read more.

In powder metallurgy (PM), severe plastic deformation (SPD) is a well-known technological solution to achieve interesting properties. However, the occurrence of pores in the final product may limit these properties. Also, for a given type of microstructure, the stereometric parameters of the pore structures, such as shape (represented by Aspect and Dcircle) and distribution (fshape, and fcircle), decisively affect the final properties. The influence of different processing routes (pressing, sintering and equal channel angular pressing (ECAP)) on pore structures in an aluminum PM alloy is discussed. The nature of porosity, porosity evolution and its behavior is explored. The correlation between pore size and morphology is also considered. The final pore structure parameters (Aspect, Dcircle, fshape, and fcircle) of studied aluminum alloys produced by different processing routes depends on the different formation routes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Metal Forming Processes)

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19 pages, 7886 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Exploration of Weld Bead Forming Rule during Double-Pulsed GMAW Process Based on Grey Relational Analysis

by Ping Yao, Kang Zhou, Hongyan Lin, Zihui Xu and Songchen Yue

Materials 2019, 12(22), 3662; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma12223662 - 7 Nov 2019

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 2135

Abstract

Weld bead forming rule is very important during double-pulsed gas metal arc welding (DP-GMAW) process, and this process has more advantages than that of conventional arc welding process. This work employed grey rational analysis to explore the weld bead forming rule. Since the [...] Read more.

Weld bead forming rule is very important during double-pulsed gas metal arc welding (DP-GMAW) process, and this process has more advantages than that of conventional arc welding process. This work employed grey rational analysis to explore the weld bead forming rule. Since the latest twinpulse XT DP control process was employed, the parameters adjustment was easier than that of conventional operation. The grey relational analyses between five main process parameters, which were average welding current, welding speed, twin pulse relation, twin pulse frequency together with twin pulse current change in percent, and three key characteristic parameters, which were bead width, bead height and penetration, were conducted to explore the weld bead forming rule. To accurately calculate the grey relational degree, the negative relevancies were transformed to positive ones. According to calculations and corresponding analyses, it can be concluded that the effects of average welding current and welding speed on the weld bead forming and key characteristic parameters of the weld bead were higher than that of other process parameters. Moreover, the relevancies between key characteristic parameters of the weld bead, and process parameters which included twin pulse relation, average welding current and twin pulse current change in percent were positive, while the relevancies between key characteristic parameters and other two process parameters were negative. The work can supply a new method to evaluate the effects of process parameters during the DP-GMAW process on the weld bead forming or other process characteristics, and references for parameters selection and process optimization. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Metal Forming Processes)

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13 pages, 4021 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Junction Characterization in a Functionally Graded Aluminum Part

by Elisa Fracchia, Federico Simone Gobber, Mario Rosso, Marco Actis Grande, Jana Bidulská and Róbert Bidulský

Materials 2019, 12(21), 3475; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma12213475 - 24 Oct 2019

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2618

Abstract

Aluminum alloys are widely used to produce automotive components, thanks to their great mechanical properties–to–density ratio. Engine components such as pistons are conventionally produced by casting of Al–Si eutectic alloys (Silumin alloys) such as EN AC 48000. Due to the harsh working conditions [...] Read more.

Aluminum alloys are widely used to produce automotive components, thanks to their great mechanical properties–to–density ratio. Engine components such as pistons are conventionally produced by casting of Al–Si eutectic alloys (Silumin alloys) such as EN AC 48000. Due to the harsh working conditions and the lower ductility if compared to aluminum–silicon alloys with lower silicon content, pistons made of this alloy are prone to fatigue failures in the skirt region. In order to overcome such limits, the use of a Functionally Graded Material (FGM) in the production of a piston is proposed. The adoption of a functionally graded architecture can maximize the properties of the component in specific areas. A higher level of thermal resistance in the crown of the piston can be achieved with EN AC 48000 (AlSi12CuNiMg), while higher elongation at rupture in the skirt region would be conferred by an EN AC 42100 (AlSi9Mg0.3). The FGM properties are strictly related to the metallurgical bonding between the alloys as well as to the presence of intermetallic phases in the alloys junction. In the present article, the characterization of gravity casted FGM samples based on Al–Si alloys with respect to microstructure and mechanical testing is presented, with a specific focus on the characterization by impact testing of the joint between the two alloys. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Metal Forming Processes)

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16 pages, 5244 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Compaction Velocity on the Sinterability of Al-Fe-Cr-Ti PM Alloy

by Xianjie Yuan, Xuanhui Qu, Haiqing Yin, Zhenwei Yan and Zhaojun Tan

Materials 2019, 12(18), 3005; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma12183005 - 16 Sep 2019

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2524

Abstract

In this research, the effects of the compaction velocity on the sinterability of the Al–Fe–Cr–Ti powder metallurgy (PM) alloy by high velocity compaction were investigated. The Al–Fe–Cr–Ti alloy powder was compacted with different velocities by high velocity compaction and then sintered under a [...] Read more.

In this research, the effects of the compaction velocity on the sinterability of the Al–Fe–Cr–Ti powder metallurgy (PM) alloy by high velocity compaction were investigated. The Al–Fe–Cr–Ti alloy powder was compacted with different velocities by high velocity compaction and then sintered under a flow of high pure (99.999 wt%) nitrogen gas. Results indicated that both the sintered density and mechanical properties increased with increasing compaction velocity. By increasing the compaction velocity, the shrinkage of the sintered samples decreased. A maximum sintered density of 2.85 gcm⁻³ (relative density is 98%) was obtained when the compaction velocity was 9.4 ms⁻¹. The radial and axial shrinkage were controlled to less than 1% at a compaction velocity of 9.4 ms⁻¹. At a compaction velocity of 9.4 ms⁻¹, sintered compacts with an ultimate tensile strength of 222 MPa and a yield strength of 160 MPa were achieved. The maximum elongation was observed to be 2.6%. The enhanced tensile properties of the Al–Fe–Cr–Ti alloy were mainly due to particle boundary strengthening. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Metal Forming Processes)

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16 pages, 11002 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Electromagnetic Sheet Forming by Uniform Pressure Using Flat Spiral Coil

by Xiaohui Cui, Dongyang Qiu, Lina Jiang, Hailiang Yu, Zhihao Du and Ang Xiao

Materials 2019, 12(12), 1963; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma12121963 - 18 Jun 2019

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3834

Abstract

The coil is the most important component in electromagnetic forming. Two important questions in electromagnetic forming are how to obtain the desired magnetic force distribution on the sheet and increase the service life of the coil. A uniform pressure coil is widely used [...] Read more.

The coil is the most important component in electromagnetic forming. Two important questions in electromagnetic forming are how to obtain the desired magnetic force distribution on the sheet and increase the service life of the coil. A uniform pressure coil is widely used in sheet embossing, bulging, and welding. However, the coil is easy to break, and the manufacturing process is complex. In this paper, a new uniform-pressure coil with a planar structure was designed. A three-dimensional (3D) finite element model was established to analyze the effect of the main process parameters on magnetic force distribution. By comparing the experimental results, it was found that the simulation results have a higher analysis precision. Based on the simulation results, the resistivity of the die, spacing between the left and right parts of the coil, relative position between coil and sheet, and sheet width significantly affect the distribution of magnetic force. Compared with the structure and magnetic force on a traditional uniform pressure coil, the planar uniform pressure coil can produce a uniform magnetic force distribution on the sheet, reduce the manufacturing difficulty, reduce manufacturing cost, and enhance the service life for the coil. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Metal Forming Processes)

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15 pages, 6979 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Modeling and Analysis of Single Point Incremental Forming Force with Static Pressure Support and Ultrasonic Vibration

by Lang Bai, Yan Li, Mingshun Yang, Yunbo Lin, Qilong Yuan and Renfeng Zhao

Materials 2019, 12(12), 1899; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma12121899 - 13 Jun 2019

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 3405

Abstract

In order to solve the problem of low accuracy caused by instability and springback during the single point incremental forming (SPIF) process, static pressure support (SPS) and ultrasonic vibration (UV) are introduced into the technology for auxiliary forming. In order to qualitatively and [...] Read more.

In order to solve the problem of low accuracy caused by instability and springback during the single point incremental forming (SPIF) process, static pressure support (SPS) and ultrasonic vibration (UV) are introduced into the technology for auxiliary forming. In order to qualitatively and quantitatively study the mechanism of static pressure support–ultrasonic vibration-single point incremental forming (SPS-UV-SPIF) force, a typical truncated cone is used as the research object. The working principle and motion rules of the technology are analyzed. The sheet micro-element of the sidewall area is taken as an analysis object. The spatial stress balance equation of the sheet is constructed. The various stresses are integrated and calculated. The forces in each area of the sheet are analyzed and modeled. Finally, an analytical model for SPS-UV-SPIF force is established. The influence law of the static pressure parameter and the vibration parameter on the forming force is obtained. The corresponding SPS system and UV system are designed. The Kistler forming force test system is built. The experimental results are consistent with the theoretical analysis results, which verifies the correctness of the analytical model. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Metal Forming Processes)

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29 pages, 12114 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Through-Process Finite Element Modeling for Warm Flanging Process of Large-Diameter Aluminum Alloy Shell of Gas Insulated (Metal-Enclosed) Switchgear

by Da-Wei Zhang, Tian-Lin Shi and Sheng-Dun Zhao

Materials 2019, 12(11), 1784; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma12111784 - 1 Jun 2019

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2982

Abstract

The large diameter metal shell component (LDMSC) is an important part of gas insulated (metal-enclosed) switchgear (GIS). The LDMSC with multi branches is filled with gas under certain pressure. The plastic forming process is an efficient approach to manufacturing the high reliability LDMSC. [...] Read more.

The large diameter metal shell component (LDMSC) is an important part of gas insulated (metal-enclosed) switchgear (GIS). The LDMSC with multi branches is filled with gas under certain pressure. The plastic forming process is an efficient approach to manufacturing the high reliability LDMSC. The warm flanging process has been widely used to form LDMSC using aluminum alloy. The forming process is characterized by local heating, and the distribution of temperature is strongly inhomogeneous. Although the wall thickness of the shell is 10 mm to 20 mm, the ratio of outer diameter to thickness is more than 40. These present some difficulties in the flanging process and result in some forming defects. Detailed forming characteristics are hard to obtain by analytical and experimental methods. Thus, the through-process finite element (FE) modeling considering heating, forming, unloading, and cooling is one of the key problems to research the manufacturing process of LDMSC. In this study, the through-process FE modeling of the warm flanging process of LDMSC using aluminum alloy was carried out based on the FORGE. The thermo-mechanical coupled finite element method was adopted in the modeling, and the deformation of the workpiece and the die stress were considered together in the modeling. A full three-dimensional (3D) geometry was modeled due to inhomogeneous distribution in all directions for the temperature field. The simulation data of local flame heating could be transferred seamlessly to the simulations of the deforming process, the unloading process, and the cooling process in the through-process FE model. The model was validated by comparison with geometric shapes and forming defects obtained from the experiment. The developed FE model could describe the inhomogeneous temperature field along circumferential, radial, and axial directions for the formed branch as well as the deformation characteristic and the unloading behavior during the warm flanging process. By using the FE model, the forming defects during the flanging process and their controlling characteristics were explored, the evolution of the temperature field through the whole process was studied, and deformation and springback characteristics were analyzed. The results of this study provide a basis for investigating deformation mechanisms, optimizing processes, and determining parameters in the warm flanging process of a large-diameter aluminum alloy shell component. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Metal Forming Processes)

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20 pages, 8821 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of Processing Parameters on the Thread and Spline Synchronous Rolling Process: An Experimental Study

by Da-Wei Zhang, Bing-Kun Liu and Sheng-Dun Zhao

Materials 2019, 12(10), 1716; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma12101716 - 27 May 2019

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3287

Abstract

The thread and spline synchronous rolling (TSSR) process is a new developed rolling process, which can form the different profiles simultaneously in the process and can ensure the consistency of the relative position of different profiles of parts. However, the multi-meshing motions are [...] Read more.

The thread and spline synchronous rolling (TSSR) process is a new developed rolling process, which can form the different profiles simultaneously in the process and can ensure the consistency of the relative position of different profiles of parts. However, the multi-meshing motions are intercoupling and the multi-deformation characteristics are intercoupling during the forming process. It can easily result in dimension overshoot, and even does not make the synchronous rolling process go smoothly. Exploring the influence of controllable processing parameters on the synchronous rolling process, especially the geometric parameters of rolled parts, is helpful to determine the parameters and control the size error for a smooth rolling process. Thus, in this paper, the effects of controllable geometric parameters and motion parameters such as billet diameter, radial feed-in speed, and rotational speed of synchronous rolling die on the TSSR process have been studied. The synchronous rolling experimental scheme was determined using an orthogonal experimental design method, and the geometric parameters of different tooth profiles of rolled parts were measured and analyzed. The experimental results indicated that: the uncoordinated meshing movement between different tooth profiles is more likely to cause tooth error of the splined section of the part; variations of the processing parameters are more likely to cause fluctuations in the size of the splined section of the part, and change of the billet diameter mainly affects the outside diameter of the threaded and splined sections, and the threaded and splined pitches are mainly affected by the motion parameters of the synchronous rolling die; the motion parameters of the rolling die should be matched and the lower rotational speed needs to match the lower radial feed-in amount per revolution; the ideal dimensional accuracy can be obtained by using an appropriate processing parameter combination, for example, the pitch error of the splined section of the part is less than 0.5 μm under one set of experimental conditions in this paper. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Metal Forming Processes)

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15 pages, 8103 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Influencing Factors of Void closure in Skew-Rolled Steel Balls Based on the Floating-Pressure Method

by Chang Shu, Jitai Wang, Xuedao Shu and Duanyang Tian

Materials 2019, 12(9), 1391; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma12091391 - 29 Apr 2019

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3822

Abstract

Due to the instable conditions caused by the wear of rollers, macro voids inevitably occur in skew rolling steel balls. Macro voids in rolled balls greatly weakens the mechanical properties, resulting in the scrapping of about 23% of all skew rolling balls. This [...] Read more.

Due to the instable conditions caused by the wear of rollers, macro voids inevitably occur in skew rolling steel balls. Macro voids in rolled balls greatly weakens the mechanical properties, resulting in the scrapping of about 23% of all skew rolling balls. This paper adopts the floating-pressure method (FPM) to eliminate macro voids in rolled steel balls, and mainly focuses on the investigation of the influencing factor void closure in skew-rolled balls. The research contents are listed as follows: Firstly, the mechanical model of FPM eliminating void in rolled steel balls is established, and the theoretical relationship between influencing factors of void closure is obtained. Then, the metal flow behaviors, the stress distribution and the effect of process parameters on void closure are revealed by numerical analysis. Subsequently, based on the uniform design method, the prediction equation of the required temperature and air pressure for compacting various inferior rolled balls with different diameter by FPM is deduced. Finally, the FPM experiment is carried out to verify the results of numerical analysis. The research results provide theoretical guidance for eliminating macro voids in skew-rolled steel balls. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Metal Forming Processes)

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14 pages, 9050 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of 34CrMo4 Steel for Gas Cylinders Formed by Hot Drawing and Flow Forming

by Yuebing Li, Wei Fang, Chuanyang Lu, Zengliang Gao, Xiakang Ma, Weiya Jin, Yufeng Ye and Fenghuai Wang

Materials 2019, 12(8), 1351; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma12081351 - 25 Apr 2019

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 5187

Abstract

An integral manufacturing process with hot drawing and cold flow forming was proposed for large-diameter seamless steel gas cylinders. The main purpose of this study was to find out the effects of the manufacturing process on the microstructure and mechanical properties of gas [...] Read more.

An integral manufacturing process with hot drawing and cold flow forming was proposed for large-diameter seamless steel gas cylinders. The main purpose of this study was to find out the effects of the manufacturing process on the microstructure and mechanical properties of gas cylinders made of 34CrMo4 steel. Two preformed cylinders were produced by hot drawing. One cylinder was then further manufactured by cold flow forming. The experiments were carried out using three types of material sample, namely, base material (BM), hot drawing cylinder (HD), and cold flow-formed cylinder (CF). Tensile and impact tests were performed to examine the mechanical properties of the cylinders in longitudinal and transverse directions. Microstructure evolution was analyzed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) to reveal the relation between the mechanical properties and the microstructure of the material. It is found that the mechanical properties of the 34CrMo4 steel gas cylinders were significantly improved after hot drawing and flow forming plus a designed heat treatment, compared with the base material. The observations of microstructure features such as grain size, subgrain boundaries, and residual strain support the increase in mechanical properties due to the proposed manufacturing process. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Metal Forming Processes)

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15 pages, 7731 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Effect of Specific Energy Density on Microstructure and Corrosion Resistance of CoCrMo Alloy Fabricated by Laser Metal Deposition

by Jinbao Li, Huijiao Ren, Changsheng Liu and Shuo Shang

Materials 2019, 12(8), 1321; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma12081321 - 23 Apr 2019

Cited by 29 | Viewed by 4048

Abstract

With the development of modern medical implants, there are significantly increasing demands for personalized prosthesis. Corrosion-resistance and dense cobalt alloy specimens have been successfully fabricated by laser metal deposition. The relationship between specific energy density, microstructure and corrosion resistance of the specimens is [...] Read more.

With the development of modern medical implants, there are significantly increasing demands for personalized prosthesis. Corrosion-resistance and dense cobalt alloy specimens have been successfully fabricated by laser metal deposition. The relationship between specific energy density, microstructure and corrosion resistance of the specimens is investigated. The results show that higher specific energy density promotes the formation of columnar grain and leads to coarse grain size. The evolution and distribution of deposited microstructure from bottom to top are summarized in a metallographic sketch. The corrosion current of deposited specimens increases from 2.071 × 10⁻⁶ A/cm² to 6.86 × 10⁻⁵ A/cm² and rapidly drops to 9.88 × 10⁻⁷ A/cm² with increase of specific energy density from 318.8 J/g to 2752.3 J/g. The columnar and equiaxed structure of deposited specimens have lower corrosion current than mixed structure due to finer grain and less Mo segregation. The deposited have low level metal released because of passive film. The passive film have different formation routes in Hank’s solution and acidic saliva. The specific energy density has an important effect on the microstructure of deposited, which improves corrosion resistance and life span in implant. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Metal Forming Processes)

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19 pages, 11368 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Direct Observation of Filling Process and Porosity Prediction in High Pressure Die Casting

by Hanxue Cao, Chao Shen, Chengcheng Wang, Hui Xu and Juanjuan Zhu

Materials 2019, 12(7), 1099; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma12071099 - 2 Apr 2019

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 4437

Abstract

Although numerical simulation accuracy makes progress rapidly, it is in an insufficient phase because of complicated phenomena of the filling process and difficulty of experimental verification in high pressure die casting (HPDC), especially in thin-wall complex die-castings. Therefore, in this paper, a flow [...] Read more.

Although numerical simulation accuracy makes progress rapidly, it is in an insufficient phase because of complicated phenomena of the filling process and difficulty of experimental verification in high pressure die casting (HPDC), especially in thin-wall complex die-castings. Therefore, in this paper, a flow visualization experiment is conducted, and the porosity at different locations is predicted under three different fast shot velocities. The differences in flow pattern between the actual filling process and the numerical simulation are compared. It shows that the flow visualization experiment can directly observe the actual and real-time filling process and could be an effective experimental verification method for the accuracy of the flow simulation model in HPDC. Moreover, significant differences start to appear in the flow pattern between the actual experiment and the Anycasting solution after the fragment or atomization formation. Finally, the fast shot velocity would determine the position at which the back flow meets the incoming flow. The junction of two streams of fluid would create more porosity than the other location. There is a transition in flow patterns due to drag crisis under high fast shot velocity around two staggered cylinders, which resulted in the porosity relationship also changing from R1 < R3 < R2 (0.88 m/s) to R1 < R2 < R3 (1.59 and 2.34 m/s). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Metal Forming Processes)

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11 pages, 12986 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Bending Properties of Mg Alloy Tailored Arc-Heat-Treated Blanks

by Daxin Ren, Fanyu Zeng, Liming Liu and Kunmin Zhao

Materials 2019, 12(6), 977; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma12060977 - 25 Mar 2019

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3317

Abstract

Tailored heat-treated blank is a special kind of sheet, and the plastic forming ability can be improved. In this work, the poor room-temperature plasticity of a tailored magnesium alloy blank was address through arc heat treatment. The formability of the material was enhanced [...] Read more.

Tailored heat-treated blank is a special kind of sheet, and the plastic forming ability can be improved. In this work, the poor room-temperature plasticity of a tailored magnesium alloy blank was address through arc heat treatment. The formability of the material was enhanced through local modification with arc pretreatment. The plasticity of the tailored arc-heat-treated blank was verified through the V-bending test. The microstructure and mechanical properties of the blank were tested, and the mechanisms underlying its improved deformability were analyzed. The bendability of the blank first increased and then decreased as heat input increased. The maximum V-bending ability of the arc-heat-treated blank increased by 88% relative to that of the untreated blank. Although springback decreased under increasing heat input, the local strength and elastic modulus of the alloy blank were equivalent to those of the base metal. This result indicated that the springback resistance of the material did not improve. The back of the blank treated under the optimal parameters comprised heat-affected zones with good plasticity. Recrystallization and grain growth occurred in the heat-affected zones. The blank exhibited reduced hardness and improved malleability. When the heat input was further increased, however, a semi-melting zone formed on the lower surface of the blank. The formation of this zone resulted in the precipitation of intermetallic compounds from the crystal phase and increased the hardness of the blank. It also decreased the plasticity and malleability of the blank. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Metal Forming Processes)

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10 pages, 4735 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Effect of Swinging Ball Heads with Different Arrangements in Multi-Point Stretch-Forming Process

by Jian Xing, Yan-yan Cheng and Zhuo Yi

Materials 2019, 12(3), 337; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma12030337 - 22 Jan 2019

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3732

Abstract

To improve the effect of multi-point stretch forming of sheet metal, it is proposed in this paper to replace a fixed ball head with a swinging ball head. According to the multi-point dies with different arrangements, this research establishes finite element models of [...] Read more.

To improve the effect of multi-point stretch forming of sheet metal, it is proposed in this paper to replace a fixed ball head with a swinging ball head. According to the multi-point dies with different arrangements, this research establishes finite element models of the following stretch forming, i.e., fixed ball heads with conventional arrangement, swinging ball heads with conventional arrangement, swinging ball heads with declining staggered arrangement, and swinging ball heads with parallel staggered arrangement, and then numerical simulation is performed. The simulation results show that by replacing a fixed ball head with a swinging ball head, the surface indentation of the part formed was effectively suppressed, the stress and tension strain distribution of the part formed was improved, and the forming quality was improved; the thickness of the elastic pad was reduced, the springback was reduced and the forming accuracy was improved; and when the ball head was applied to a multi-point die with staggered arrangement, a better forming result was achieved, where the best forming result was achieved in combining the swinging ball heads with the multi-point die with a parallel staggered arrangement. Forming experiments were carried out, and the experimental results were consistent with the trend of numerical simulation results, which verified the correctness of the numerical simulation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Metal Forming Processes)

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15 pages, 13285 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Heat Treatment Condition on the Flow Behavior and Recrystallization Mechanisms of Aluminum Alloy 7055

by Bin Liao, Lingfei Cao, Xiaodong Wu, Yan Zou, Guangjie Huang, Paul A. Rometsch, Malcolm J. Couper and Qing Liu

Materials 2019, 12(2), 311; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma12020311 - 20 Jan 2019

Cited by 29 | Viewed by 4099

Abstract

The flow behavior and the microstructural evolution of aluminum alloy 7055 in two heat treatment conditions (homogenized vs. pre-rolled, solution treated, stretched and naturally aged (T3)) were investigated for a height reduction of 60% with deformation temperatures ranging from 370 °C to 450 [...] Read more.

The flow behavior and the microstructural evolution of aluminum alloy 7055 in two heat treatment conditions (homogenized vs. pre-rolled, solution treated, stretched and naturally aged (T3)) were investigated for a height reduction of 60% with deformation temperatures ranging from 370 °C to 450 °C and strain rates ranging from 0.01 s⁻¹ to 10 s⁻¹. Flow stress decline ratio maps as a function of deformation temperature and strain rate were produced along with processing maps at a strain of 0.8 to reveal optimum hot-working conditions for deformation at strain rates of 0.01 s⁻¹ to 0.1 s⁻¹. The results showed that the stress drop ratio during deformation is higher for the homogenized condition than for the pre-rolled, T3 condition. A higher degree of recrystallization after deformation was observed in the pre-rolled, T3 condition due to finer second phase particles, smaller grain size, and more numerous sub-grains. The mechanism for deformation softening is discussed in the context of grain boundary characteristics. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Metal Forming Processes)

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