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17 pages, 7673 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comparative Analysis of Original and Replaced Gut Microbiomes within Same Individuals Identified the Intestinal Microbes Associated with Weight Gaining

by Chongkai Zhai, Ji-Seon Ahn, Md Minarul Islam, Enkhchimeg Lkhagva, Hea-Jong Chung and Seong-Tshool Hong

Microorganisms 2022, 10(5), 1062; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms10051062 - 20 May 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2301

Abstract

The precise mechanisms of action of the host’s gut microbiome at the level of its constituting bacteria are obscure in most cases despite its definitive role. To study the precise role of the gut microbiome on the phenotypes of a host by excluding [...] Read more.

The precise mechanisms of action of the host’s gut microbiome at the level of its constituting bacteria are obscure in most cases despite its definitive role. To study the precise role of the gut microbiome on the phenotypes of a host by excluding host factors, we analyzed two different gut microbiomes within the same individual mouse after replacing the gut microbiome with a new one to exclude the host factors. The gut microbiome of conventional C57BL/6 mice was randomly reestablished by feeding fecal samples from obese humans to the mice, and depleting their original gut microbiome with an antibiotic and antifungal treatment. Comparison of body weight changes before and 3 months after the replacement of the gut microbiome showed that the gut microbiome replacement affected the body weight gain in three different ways: positive, medium, and negative. The differences in body weight gain were associated with establishment of a different kind of gut microbiome in each of the mice. In addition, body weight gaining was negatively associated with the Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes ratio, which is consistent with previous recent findings. Thorough statistical analysis at low taxonomic levels showed that uncultured bacteria NR_074436.1, NR_144750.1, and NR_0421101.1 were positively associated with body weight gain, while Trichinella pseudospiralis and uncultured bacteria NR_024815.1 and NR_144616.1 were negatively associated. This work shows that replacement of the gut microbiome within the same individual provides an excellent opportunity for the purpose of gut microbiome analysis by excluding the host factors. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in Gut Microbiota)

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14 pages, 1486 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Relationships between the Gut Microbiota of Juvenile Black Sea Bream (Acanthopagrus schlegelii) and Associated Environment Compartments in Different Habitats

by Peng Sun, Hui Zhang, Yazhou Jiang, Quanxin Gao, Baojun Tang, Jianzhong Ling and Xingwei Yuan

Microorganisms 2021, 9(12), 2557; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms9122557 - 10 Dec 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2677

Abstract

The fish-gut microbiota play a key role in the physiology, development, and fitness of its host. An understanding of fish-gut microbial communities and the factors influencing community composition is crucial for improving fish performance. In this study, we compared the gut microbiota of [...] Read more.

The fish-gut microbiota play a key role in the physiology, development, and fitness of its host. An understanding of fish-gut microbial communities and the factors influencing community composition is crucial for improving fish performance. In this study, we compared the gut microbiota of juvenile black sea bream Acanthopagrus schlegelii among habitats: (1) wild, (2) offshore cage-culture, and (3) pond-culture. We also explored the relationships between the gut microbiota and host-associated environmental factors. Gut samples and associated environmental compartments were investigated using 16S rRNA gene sequencing. Our results revealed significant habitat-specific differences among the gut microbiota of juvenile A. schlegelii. Wild populations of juvenile A. schlegelii had more diverse gut microbiota than populations cultured in pond habitats due to their omnivorous feeding habits and the corresponding abundance of natural food resources. Significant variations in the composition, core taxa, and diversity of the microbiota were also found between the gut and the environmental compartments. However, no significant differences were observed among the microbiota of the environmental compartments in the relatively isolated pond habitat. Source tracking analysis recovered connections between the fish-gut microbiota and the diet, water and sediment environmental compartments. This connection was especially strong between the microbiota of the fish gut and that of the diet in the pond habitat: the diet microbiota accounted for 33.48 ± 0.21% of the gut microbiota. Results suggested that all A. schlegelii shared a core gut microbiota, regardless of differences in diet and habitat. However, environmental factors associated with both diet and habitat contributed to the significant differences between the gut microbiota of fish living in different habitats. To the authors’ knowledge, this study presents the first comparison of gut microbiota among juvenile A. schlegelii with different diets and habitats. These findings enrich our understanding of the gut microbiota of A. schlegelii and help to clarify the interaction between gut microbiota and environmental factors. Our results may also help to guide and improve fish ecological fitness via the regulation of gut microbiota, thereby increasing the efficacy of stock enhancement programs for this species. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in Gut Microbiota)

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18 pages, 4009 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Alteration of the Immune Response and the Microbiota of the Skin during a Natural Infection by Vibrio harveyi in European Seabass (Dicentrarchus labrax)

by María Cámara-Ruiz, Isabel M. Cerezo, Francisco A. Guardiola, José María García-Beltrán, M. Carmen Balebona, Miguel Ángel Moriñigo and María Ángeles Esteban

Microorganisms 2021, 9(5), 964; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms9050964 - 29 Apr 2021

Cited by 30 | Viewed by 3936

Abstract

Disease outbreaks continue to represent one of the main bottlenecks for the sustainable development of the aquaculture industry. In marine aquaculture, many species from the Vibrio genus are serious opportunistic pathogens responsible for significant losses to producers. In this study, the effects on [...] Read more.

Disease outbreaks continue to represent one of the main bottlenecks for the sustainable development of the aquaculture industry. In marine aquaculture, many species from the Vibrio genus are serious opportunistic pathogens responsible for significant losses to producers. In this study, the effects on the immune response and the skin microbiota of European sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax) were studied after a natural disease outbreak caused by V. harveyi. Data obtained from infected and non-infected fish were studied and compared. Regarding the local immune response (skin mucus) a decrease in the protease activity was observed in infected fish. Meanwhile, at a systemic level, a decrease in protease and lysozyme activity was reported while peroxidase activity showed a significant increase in serum from infected fish. A clear dysbiosis was observed in the skin mucus microbiota of infected fish in comparison with non-infected fish. Moreover, V. harveyi, was identified as a biomarker for the infected group and Rubritalea for healthy fish. This study highlights the importance of characterizing the mucosal surfaces and microbial composition of the skin mucus (as a non-invasive technique) to detect potential disease outbreaks in fish farms. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in Gut Microbiota)

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14 pages, 2733 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Dysbiosis of Gut Microbiota Caused by Low-Dose Cadmium Aggravate the Injury of Mice Liver through Increasing Intestinal Permeability

by Yehao Liu, Yuhui Li, Yuhong Xia, Kaiyong Liu, Lingling Ren and Yanli Ji

Microorganisms 2020, 8(2), 211; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms8020211 - 5 Feb 2020

Cited by 47 | Viewed by 4065

Abstract

Cadmium (Cd), widely present in food and drinking water at low doses, can cause health risks. However, the mechanistic effects of long-term Cd exposure at low dose through dietary intake is poorly studied. The aim of this study is to elucidate whether the [...] Read more.

Cadmium (Cd), widely present in food and drinking water at low doses, can cause health risks. However, the mechanistic effects of long-term Cd exposure at low dose through dietary intake is poorly studied. The aim of this study is to elucidate whether the dysbiosis of gut microbiota caused by Cd at an environmental low dose can aggravate the injury of mice liver, and the possible mechanism is investigated. In order to explore the potential underlying mechanism, the analyses of the variation of gut microbiota composition, intestinal permeability, and hepatic transcriptome were conducted. Our results showed that gut microbiota was disturbed. The rise of intestinal permeability induced by the dysbiosis of gut microbiota resulted in more Cd ions accumulating in mice liver, but it could be restored partly through depleting gut microbiota by antibiotics cocktail. Transcriptomic analyses indicated that 162 genes were significantly differentially expressed including 59 up-regulated and 103 down-regulated in Cd treatment. These genes were involved in several important pathways. Our findings provide a better understanding about the health risks of cadmium in the environment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in Gut Microbiota)

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21 pages, 1575 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Dietary Saccharomyces cerevisiae boulardii CNCM I-1079 Positively Affects Performance and Intestinal Ecosystem in Broilers during a Campylobacter jejuni Infection

by Francesca Romana Massacci, Carmela Lovito, Silvia Tofani, Michele Tentellini, Domenica Anna Genovese, Alessia Arcangela Pia De Leo, Paola Papa, Chiara Francesca Magistrali, Elisabetta Manuali, Massimo Trabalza-Marinucci, Livia Moscati and Claudio Forte

Microorganisms 2019, 7(12), 596; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms7120596 - 21 Nov 2019

Cited by 23 | Viewed by 4824

Abstract

In poultry production, probiotics have shown promise to limit campylobacteriosis at the farm level, the most commonly reported zoonosis in Europe. The aim of this trial was to evaluate the effects of Saccharomyces supplementation in Campylobacter jejuni challenged chickens on performance and intestinal [...] Read more.

In poultry production, probiotics have shown promise to limit campylobacteriosis at the farm level, the most commonly reported zoonosis in Europe. The aim of this trial was to evaluate the effects of Saccharomyces supplementation in Campylobacter jejuni challenged chickens on performance and intestinal ecosystem. A total of 156 day old male Ross 308 chicks were assigned to a basal control diet (C) or to a Saccharomyces cerevisiae boulardii CNCM I-1079 supplemented diet (S). All the birds were orally challenged with C. jejuni on day (d) 21. Live weight and growth performance were evaluated on days 1, 21, 28 and 40. The histology of intestinal mucosa was analyzed and the gut microbiota composition was assessed by 16S rRNA. Performance throughout the trial as well as villi length and crypt depth were positively influenced by yeast supplementation. A higher abundance of operational taxonomic units (OTUs) annotated as Lactobacillus reuteri and Faecalibacterium prausnitzii and a lower abundance of Campylobacter in fecal samples from S compared to the C group were reported. Supplementation with Saccharomyces cerevisiae boulardii can effectively modulate the intestinal ecosystem, leading to a higher abundance of beneficial microorganisms and modifying the intestinal mucosa architecture, with a subsequent improvement of the broilers’ growth performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in Gut Microbiota)

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18 pages, 3319 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Effect of Maternal Postpartum Practices on Infant Gut Microbiota: A Chinese Cohort Study

by Ying Wang, Yanqun Liu, Jinbing Bai and Xiaoli Chen

Microorganisms 2019, 7(11), 511; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms7110511 - 30 Oct 2019

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 4378

Abstract

(1) Background: The human gut microbiota at early life is shaped by numerous factors, especially factors from mothers, which have huge influence on infants’ gut microbiotas. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of maternal adherence to Chinese traditional postpartum [...] Read more.

(1) Background: The human gut microbiota at early life is shaped by numerous factors, especially factors from mothers, which have huge influence on infants’ gut microbiotas. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of maternal adherence to Chinese traditional postpartum practices of “doing the month” on the development of infant gut microbiota at 6-month postpartum. (2) Methods: A cohort of 62 Chinese women at late pregnancy was recruited from a tertiary general hospital in a central region of China. The participants and their babies were followed up to 6 months postpartum. Finally, 50 mother-infant dyads were enrolled in the study. Women’s adherence to the traditional postpartum practices was measured by adherence to doing the month practices (ADP). Infant fecal samples were collected at six months of age and were analyzed using 16S rRNA V3 and V4 gene region sequences. (3) Results: Ruminococcus gnavus was significantly less abundant in infants whose mothers had a better adherence to the traditional postpartum practices of “doing the month.” Infants receiving Clostridium-butyricum during the first month after delivery had a significant dominance of Escherichia/Shigella. (4) Conclusions: Adherence to the traditional postpartum practices of “doing the month” can impact an infant’s gut microbiota at 6 months of age. Infants receiving probiotics during the first month after delivery had a significant dominance of opportunistic pathogens. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in Gut Microbiota)

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11 pages, 1103 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Impact of Bioinformatics Pipelines on Microbiota Studies: Does the Analytical “Microscope” Affect the Biological Interpretation?

by Léa Siegwald, Ségolène Caboche, Gaël Even, Eric Viscogliosi, Christophe Audebert and Magali Chabé

Microorganisms 2019, 7(10), 393; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms7100393 - 26 Sep 2019

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 5445

Abstract

Targeted metagenomics is the solution of choice to reveal differential microbial profiles (defined by richness, diversity and composition) as part of case-control studies. It is well documented that each data processing step may have the potential to introduce bias in the results. However, [...] Read more.

Targeted metagenomics is the solution of choice to reveal differential microbial profiles (defined by richness, diversity and composition) as part of case-control studies. It is well documented that each data processing step may have the potential to introduce bias in the results. However, selecting a bioinformatics pipeline to analyze high-throughput sequencing data from A to Z remains one of the critical considerations in a case-control microbiota study design. Consequently, the aim of this study was to assess whether the same biological conclusions regarding human gut microbiota composition and diversity could be reached using different bioinformatics pipelines. In this work, we considered four pipelines (mothur, QIIME, kraken and CLARK) with different versions and databases, and examined their impact on the outcome of metagenetic analysis of Ion Torrent 16S sequencing data. We re-analyzed a case-control study evaluating the impact of the colonization of the intestinal protozoa Blastocystis sp. on the human gut microbial profile. Although most pipelines reported the same trends in this case-control study, we demonstrated how the use of different pipelines affects the biological conclusions that can be drawn. Targeted metagenomics must therefore rather be considered as a profiling tool to obtain a broad sense of the variations of the microbiota, rather than an accurate identification tool. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in Gut Microbiota)

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23 pages, 23683 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Microbiota Composition and Functional Profiling Throughout the Gastrointestinal Tract of Commercial Weaning Piglets

by Raphaële Gresse, Frédérique Chaucheyras Durand, Lysiane Dunière, Stéphanie Blanquet-Diot and Evelyne Forano

Microorganisms 2019, 7(9), 343; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms7090343 - 12 Sep 2019

Cited by 62 | Viewed by 7607

Abstract

Dietary, environmental, and social stresses induced by weaning transition in pig production are associated with alterations of gut microbiota, diarrhea, and enteric infections. With the boom of -omic technologies, numerous studies have investigated the dynamics of fecal bacterial communities of piglets throughout weaning [...] Read more.

Dietary, environmental, and social stresses induced by weaning transition in pig production are associated with alterations of gut microbiota, diarrhea, and enteric infections. With the boom of -omic technologies, numerous studies have investigated the dynamics of fecal bacterial communities of piglets throughout weaning but much less research has been focused on the composition and functional properties of microbial communities inhabiting other gastrointestinal segments. The objective of the present study was to bring additional information about the piglet bacterial and archaeal microbiota throughout the entire digestive tract, both at the structural level by using quantitative PCR and high-throughput sequencing, and on functionality by measurement of short-chain fatty acids and predictions using Tax4Fun tool. Our results highlighted strong structural and functional differences between microbial communities inhabiting the fore and the lower gut as well as a quantitatively important archaeal community in the hindgut. The presence of opportunistic pathogens was also noticed throughout the entire digestive tract and could trigger infection emergence. Understanding the role of the intestinal piglet microbiota at weaning could provide further information about the etiology of post-weaning infections and lead to the development of effective preventive solutions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in Gut Microbiota)

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9 pages, 867 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Dietary Non-Drug Feed Additive as an Alternative for Antibiotic Growth Promoters for Broilers During a Necrotic Enteritis Challenge

by Ali Calik, Islam I. Omara, Mallory B. White, Nicholas P. Evans, T. Peter Karnezos and Rami A. Dalloul

Microorganisms 2019, 7(8), 257; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms7080257 - 13 Aug 2019

Cited by 25 | Viewed by 4475

Abstract

Necrotic enteritis, caused by Clostridium perfringens, is an enteric disease that leads to poor performance and increased mortality, resulting in significant economic losses in poultry production. This study evaluated the effects of a proprietary prebiotic, probiotic, and plant extract blend on performance of [...] Read more.

Necrotic enteritis, caused by Clostridium perfringens, is an enteric disease that leads to poor performance and increased mortality, resulting in significant economic losses in poultry production. This study evaluated the effects of a proprietary prebiotic, probiotic, and plant extract blend on performance of broilers during coccidiosis challenge leading to necrotic enteritis (NE). In total, 744 Cobb500 male broilers were randomly allocated to 3 treatments (8 replicates, 31 birds/pen) including, the negative control (NC) fed a basal diet; the positive control (PC) fed a basal diet with Virginiamycin; and the additive group fed basal diet with a blend of prebiotic, probiotic, and plant extract (BSN). A unique, naturally occurring NE model developed to mimic field conditions was implemented to challenge the birds. This model consists of spraying a concentrated commercial coccidiosis vaccine on litter and feed upon bird placement, which, in conjunction with the presence of C. perfringens spores in the environment, leads to the development of a NE outbreak one week post vaccine application. At the onset of NE on d7, three birds/pen were selected for scoring NE lesions. Body weight gain (BWG), feed intake (FI), and feed conversion ratio (FCR) were recorded on days 7, 14, 28, and 42. Carcass composition was assessed by dual energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) analysis on day 42. Dietary supplementation of BSN significantly (p < 0.05) improved FCR during starter and grower periods. Dietary treatments had no effect on NE lesions in the small intestine. DXA analysis revealed slightly higher lean content in BSN birds compared to NC. These results showed that dietary supplementation of the BSN blend significantly improved broilers performance during the early NE challenge phase, as well as in the grower period. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in Gut Microbiota)

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18 pages, 3265 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Antibiotic Resistance, Virulence Factors, Phenotyping, and Genotyping of E. coli Isolated from the Feces of Healthy Subjects

by Stefano Raimondi, Lucia Righini, Francesco Candeliere, Eliana Musmeci, Francesca Bonvicini, Giovanna Gentilomi, Marjanca Starčič Erjavec, Alberto Amaretti and Maddalena Rossi

Microorganisms 2019, 7(8), 251; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms7080251 - 10 Aug 2019

Cited by 35 | Viewed by 6232

Abstract

Escherichia coli may innocuously colonize the intestine of healthy subjects or may instigate infections in the gut or in other districts. This study investigated intestinal E. coli isolated from 20 healthy adults. Fifty-one strains were genotyped by molecular fingerprinting and analyzed for genetic [...] Read more.

Escherichia coli may innocuously colonize the intestine of healthy subjects or may instigate infections in the gut or in other districts. This study investigated intestinal E. coli isolated from 20 healthy adults. Fifty-one strains were genotyped by molecular fingerprinting and analyzed for genetic and phenotypic traits, encompassing the profile of antibiotic resistance, biofilm production, the presence of surface structures (such as curli and cellulose), and their performance as recipients in conjugation experiments. A phylogroup classification and analysis of 34 virulence determinants, together with genes associated to the pks island (polyketide-peptide genotoxin colibactin) and conjugative elements, was performed. Most of the strains belonged to the phylogroups B1 and B2. The different phylogroups were separated in a principal coordinate space, considering both genetic and functional features, but not considering pulsed-field gel electrophoresis. Within the B2 and F strains, 12 shared the pattern of virulence genes with potential uropathogens. Forty-nine strains were sensitive to all the tested antibiotics. Strains similar to the potential pathogens innocuously inhabited the gut of healthy subjects. However, they may potentially act as etiologic agents of extra-intestinal infections and are susceptible to a wide range of antibiotics. Nevertheless, there is still the possibility to control infections with antibiotic therapy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in Gut Microbiota)

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Review

Jump to: Research

17 pages, 1200 KiB

Open AccessReview

The Role of Gut Microbiota in Intestinal Inflammation with Respect to Diet and Extrinsic Stressors

by Stefani Lobionda, Panida Sittipo, Hyog Young Kwon and Yun Kyung Lee

Microorganisms 2019, 7(8), 271; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms7080271 - 19 Aug 2019

Cited by 202 | Viewed by 15659

Abstract

The gut microbiota maintains a symbiotic relationship with the host and regulates several important functions including host metabolism, immunity, and intestinal barrier function. Intestinal inflammation and inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) are commonly associated with dysbiosis of the gut microbiota. Alterations in the gut [...] Read more.

The gut microbiota maintains a symbiotic relationship with the host and regulates several important functions including host metabolism, immunity, and intestinal barrier function. Intestinal inflammation and inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) are commonly associated with dysbiosis of the gut microbiota. Alterations in the gut microbiota and associated changes in metabolites as well as disruptions in the intestinal barrier are evidence of the relationship between the gut microbiota and intestinal inflammation. Recent studies have found that many factors may alter the gut microbiota, with the effects of diet being commonly-studied. Extrinsic stressors, including environmental stressors, antibiotic exposure, sleep disturbance, physical activity, and psychological stress, may also play important roles in altering the composition of the gut microbiota. Herein, we discuss the roles of the gut microbiota in intestinal inflammation in relation to diet and other extrinsic stressors. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in Gut Microbiota)

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12 pages, 1116 KiB

Open AccessReview

The Revival of the Battle between David and Goliath in the Enteric Viruses and Microbiota Struggle: Potential Implication for Celiac Disease

by Aaron Lerner, Ajay Ramesh and Torsten Matthias

Microorganisms 2019, 7(6), 173; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms7060173 - 14 Jun 2019

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 4482

Abstract

The human gut is inhabited by overcrowded prokaryotic communities, a major component of which is the virome, comprised of viruses, bacteriophages, archaea, eukaryotes and bacteria. The virome is required for luminal homeostasis and, by their lytic or synergic capacities, they can regulate the [...] Read more.

The human gut is inhabited by overcrowded prokaryotic communities, a major component of which is the virome, comprised of viruses, bacteriophages, archaea, eukaryotes and bacteria. The virome is required for luminal homeostasis and, by their lytic or synergic capacities, they can regulate the microbial community structure and activity. Dysbiosis is associated with numerous chronic human diseases. Since the virome can impact microbial genetics and behavior, understanding its biology, composition, cellular cycle, regulation, mode of action and potential beneficial or hostile activities can change the present paradigm of the cross-talks in the luminal gut compartment. Celiac disease is a frequent autoimmune disease in which viruses can play a role in disease development. Based on the current knowledge on the enteric virome, in relation to celiac disease pathophysiological evolvement, the current review summarizes the potential interphases between the two. Exploring and understanding the role of the enteric virome in gluten-dependent enteropathy might bring new therapeutic strategies to change the luminal eco-event for the patient’s benefit. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in Gut Microbiota)

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26 pages, 2405 KiB

Open AccessReview

Probiotics and Prebiotics for the Amelioration of Type 1 Diabetes: Present and Future Perspectives

by Sidharth Mishra, Shaohua Wang, Ravinder Nagpal, Brandi Miller, Ria Singh, Subhash Taraphder and Hariom Yadav

Microorganisms 2019, 7(3), 67; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms7030067 - 2 Mar 2019

Cited by 97 | Viewed by 12745

Abstract

Type 1-diabetes (T1D) is an autoimmune disease characterized by immune-mediated destruction of pancreatic beta (β)-cells. Genetic and environmental interactions play an important role in immune system malfunction by priming an aggressive adaptive immune response against β-cells. The microbes inhabiting the human intestine closely [...] Read more.

Type 1-diabetes (T1D) is an autoimmune disease characterized by immune-mediated destruction of pancreatic beta (β)-cells. Genetic and environmental interactions play an important role in immune system malfunction by priming an aggressive adaptive immune response against β-cells. The microbes inhabiting the human intestine closely interact with the enteric mucosal immune system. Gut microbiota colonization and immune system maturation occur in parallel during early years of life; hence, perturbations in the gut microbiota can impair the functions of immune cells and vice-versa. Abnormal gut microbiota perturbations (dysbiosis) are often detected in T1D subjects, particularly those diagnosed as multiple-autoantibody-positive as a result of an aggressive and adverse immunoresponse. The pathogenesis of T1D involves activation of self-reactive T-cells, resulting in the destruction of β-cells by CD8⁺ T-lymphocytes. It is also becoming clear that gut microbes interact closely with T-cells. The amelioration of gut dysbiosis using specific probiotics and prebiotics has been found to be associated with decline in the autoimmune response (with diminished inflammation) and gut integrity (through increased expression of tight-junction proteins in the intestinal epithelium). This review discusses the potential interactions between gut microbiota and immune mechanisms that are involved in the progression of T1D and contemplates the potential effects and prospects of gut microbiota modulators, including probiotic and prebiotic interventions, in the amelioration of T1D pathology, in both human and animal models. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in Gut Microbiota)

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