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Minerals
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Weathering of Limestone
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Weathering of Limestone

A special issue of Minerals (ISSN 2075-163X). This special issue belongs to the section "Mineral Geochemistry and Geochronology".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (25 June 2021) | Viewed by 26160

Special Issue Editors

Prof. Dr. Barbara Woronko

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Faculty of Geology, University of Warsaw, 00-927 Warszawa, Poland
Interests: weathering in microscale; geochemistry; climate influence on weathering; geoarcheology; stratigraphy; quaternary; quartz grains
Dr. Maciej Dąbski

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Faculty of Geography and Regional Studies, University of Warsaw, 00-927 Warszawa, Poland
Interests: weathering in cold climates; stone surface microroughness; relative dating of landforms; photointerpretation of landforms and fossil geological structures

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The weathering of limestone plays a significant role in the development of landscapes, soil formation, decay of buildings and monuments, and global-scale shifting of carbon from the atmosphere to the land and the ocean. Carbonate rocks undergo complex rock decay processes including chemical, mechanical, and biological weathering, operating from the outcrop scale down to the atomic scale. Scientific research utilizes field, experimental, and laboratory studies. Wearing not only changes the surface and the internal texture of the rock but also its chemical and mineral composition. Furthermore, microbial communities can develop on and inside the rocks (lithobionts), resulting in rock decay by acidification, fissuring, and moisturization. However, the role of microbiota is still not well understood. Weathering of carbonate walls and monuments influences their geotechnical properties, thus it also constitutes a serious engineering problem. The degree of deterioration of ancient limestone buildings can provide archaeologists with valuable information about their age and it is a focus of conservation practices.

Studies of weathering microtextures, geochemistry, and isotopic content of rock constitute one of the main trends in contemporary geosciences. We look for appropriate models of the time-dependent evolution of the limestone weathering. This Special Issue of Minerals will be focused on new results of studies on different scales and both scientific aspects and more practical, engineering solutions. We especially welcome studies on the interaction between chemical, mechanical, and biological weathering, the effects of limestone weathering and calcite precipitation in various scales.

We welcome studies that utilize various research methods, including the following: complexometry, SEM, EDS analysis, Ion Beam Analysis, x-ray powder diffraction, extracting DNA for metagenomics analyses, and rock surface micro-roughness measuring techniques, among others. They all result in our better understanding of microscale processes and allow for better focusing of research outcomes and conclusions.

Dr. Barbara Woronko
Dr. Maciej Dąbski
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Minerals is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2400 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • Chemical weathering
  • Karstificiation
  • Mechanical weathering
  • Biological weathering
  • Lithobionts
  • Microscale weathering
  • New measuring techniques
  • Weathering microforms
  • Weathering macroforms
  • Weathering rinds
  • Weathering coating
  • Engineering
  • Geoarcheology

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Published Papers (6 papers)

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Research

10 pages, 888 KiB  
Article
Identifying Appropriate Locations for the Accelerated Weathering of Limestone to Reduce CO2 Emissions
by Julia S. Kirchner, Karsten A. Lettmann, Bernhard Schnetger, Jörg-Olaf Wolff and Hans-Jürgen Brumsack
Minerals 2021, 11(11), 1261; https://doi.org/10.3390/min11111261 - 12 Nov 2021
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1992
Abstract
The reduction in CO2 emissions is a major task for the coming decades. Accelerated weathering of limestone (AWL) can be used to capture CO2 from effluent gas streams and store it as bicarbonate in marine environments. We give an overview of [...] Read more.
The reduction in CO2 emissions is a major task for the coming decades. Accelerated weathering of limestone (AWL) can be used to capture CO2 from effluent gas streams and store it as bicarbonate in marine environments. We give an overview of the fundamental aspects of AWL, including associated CO2 emissions during the operation of AWL, characteristics of the accumulating bicarbonate-rich product water, and factors influencing the outgassing of CO2 from the ocean back into the atmosphere. Based on these aspects, we identify locations where AWL could be carried out favorably. The energy demand for AWL reduces the theoretical CO2 sequestration potential, for example, by only 5% in the case of a 100 km transport of limestone on roads. AWL-derived product water is characterized by high alkalinity but low pH values and, once in contact with the atmosphere, passive outgassing of CO2 from AWL-derived water occurs. This process is mainly driven by the difference between the fCO2 in the atmosphere and the oceanic surface layer, as well as the sea surface temperature at the discharge site. Promising sites for AWL may be in Florida or around the Mediterranean Sea, where outgassing could be prevented by injections into deep water layers. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Weathering of Limestone)
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12 pages, 4832 KiB  
Article
Wildfires as a Weathering Agent of Carbonate Rocks
by Nurit Shtober-Zisu and Lea Wittenberg
Minerals 2021, 11(10), 1091; https://doi.org/10.3390/min11101091 - 4 Oct 2021
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 4858
Abstract
While most of the scientific effort regarding wildfires has predominantly focused on fire effects on vegetation and soils, the role of fire as an essential weathering agent has been largely overlooked. This study aims to evaluate rock decay processes during wildfires, in relation [...] Read more.
While most of the scientific effort regarding wildfires has predominantly focused on fire effects on vegetation and soils, the role of fire as an essential weathering agent has been largely overlooked. This study aims to evaluate rock decay processes during wildfires, in relation to ground temperatures and rock morphologies of limestone, dolomite, and chalk. In 2010, a major forest fire in Israel caused massive destruction of the exposed rocks and accelerated rock weathering over the burned slopes. While a detailed description of the bedrock exfoliation phenomenon was previously reported, here, we conducted an experimental open fire to determine the temperature and gradients responsible for boulder shattering. The results show ground temperatures of 700 °C after 5 min from ignition, while the peak temperature (880 °C) was reached after 9 min. Temperature gradients show a rapid increase during the first 5 min (136 °C/min), moderate increase during the next 4 min (43 °C/min), and slow decrease for the next 9 min (25 °C/min). After 12 min, all boulders of all formations were cracked or completely shattered. The behaviour of carbonate rocks upon heating was studied to identify the erosive effects of fire, namely the formation of new cracks and matrix deterioration. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Weathering of Limestone)
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17 pages, 2111 KiB  
Article
Dissolution of Carbonate Rocks in a Laboratory Setting: Rates and Textures
by Erik B. Larson and Ronald V. Emmons
Minerals 2021, 11(6), 605; https://doi.org/10.3390/min11060605 - 5 Jun 2021
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 4865
Abstract
Determining the dissolution rates of carbonate rocks is vital to advancing our understanding of cave, karst, and landscape processes. Furthermore, the role of carbonate dissolution is important for the global carbon budget and climate change. A laboratory experiment was setup to calculate the [...] Read more.
Determining the dissolution rates of carbonate rocks is vital to advancing our understanding of cave, karst, and landscape processes. Furthermore, the role of carbonate dissolution is important for the global carbon budget and climate change. A laboratory experiment was setup to calculate the dissolution rates of two whole rock carbonate samples with different petrographic makeup (ooids and brachiopods). The carbonate rock samples were also explored under a scanning electron microscope to evaluate the textures that developed after dissolution The oolitic limestone dissolved at a rate of 1579 cm yr−1, and the pentamerous limestone (dolostone) dissolved at a rate of 799 cm yr−1. Both rocks did not dissolve evenly across their surface as indicated by scanning electron microscopy, it appears the allochems dissolved preferentially to the matrix/cement of the rocks and that some mechanical weathering happened as well. This work reports that the petrography and mineralogy of carbonate rocks is important to consider when exploring the cave, karst, and landscape evolution and that attention should be paid to the petrography of carbonate rocks when considering the global carbon budget. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Weathering of Limestone)
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16 pages, 6115 KiB  
Article
Weathering Processes and Mechanisms Caused by Capillary Waters and Pigeon Droppings on Porous Limestones
by David Benavente, Marli de Jongh and Juan Carlos Cañaveras
Minerals 2021, 11(1), 18; https://doi.org/10.3390/min11010018 - 25 Dec 2020
Cited by 30 | Viewed by 4206
Abstract
This investigation studies the physical and chemical effect of salt weathering on biocalcarenites and biocalcrudites in the Basilica of Our Lady of Succour (Aspe, Spain). Weathering patterns are the result of salty rising capillary water and water lixiviated from pigeon droppings. Surface modifications [...] Read more.
This investigation studies the physical and chemical effect of salt weathering on biocalcarenites and biocalcrudites in the Basilica of Our Lady of Succour (Aspe, Spain). Weathering patterns are the result of salty rising capillary water and water lixiviated from pigeon droppings. Surface modifications and features induced by material loss are observable in the monument. Formation of gypsum, hexahydrite, halite, aphthitalite and arcanite is associated with rising capillary water, and niter, hydroxyapatite, brushite, struvite, weddellite, oxammite and halite with pigeon droppings. Humberstonite is related to the interaction of both types of waters. Analysis of crystal shapes reveals different saturation degree conditions. Single salts show non-equilibrium shapes, implying higher crystallisation pressures. Single salts have undergone dissolution and/or dehydration processes enhancing the deterioration process, particularly in the presence of magnesium sulphate. Double salts (humberstonite) have crystals corresponding to near-equilibrium form, implying lower crystallisation pressures. This geochemical study suggests salts precipitate via incongruent reactions rather than congruent precipitation, where hexahydrite is the precursor and limiting reactant of humberstonite. Chemical dissolution of limestone is driven mainly by the presence of acidic water lixiviated from pigeon droppings and is a critical weathering process affecting the most valuable architectural elements present in the façades. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Weathering of Limestone)
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15 pages, 6379 KiB  
Article
Genesis of Carbonate Breccia Containing Invisible Gold in Taebaeksan Basin, South Korea
by Sang-Gun No, Maeng-Eon Park, Bong-Chul Yoo and Seung-Han Lee
Minerals 2020, 10(12), 1087; https://doi.org/10.3390/min10121087 - 3 Dec 2020
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3574
Abstract
The Yemi breccia developed and is distributed within the Paleozoic carbonate rock (Maggol Formation) in the central part of the Taebaeksan Basin, South Korea. Explanation for the genesis of the Yemi breccia has been controversial. We investigated the petrological and mineralogical properties of [...] Read more.
The Yemi breccia developed and is distributed within the Paleozoic carbonate rock (Maggol Formation) in the central part of the Taebaeksan Basin, South Korea. Explanation for the genesis of the Yemi breccia has been controversial. We investigated the petrological and mineralogical properties of the breccia and the matrix materials at 60 outcrops. The Yemi breccia is divided into crackle, mosaic, and chaotic breccias based on morphology. In addition, these are divided into blackish, reddish, grayish, and white to pinkish matrix breccias according to the materials of the matrix. Quartz, calcite, pyrite, hematite (after pyrite), and minor epidote, chlorite, and opaque materials mainly comprise the matrix materials. The pyrite grains from the Yemi breccia can be divided into two types based on the mineral texture: diagenetic and hydrothermal. We analyzed the chemistry of pyrite and hematite (after pyrite) from the Yemi breccia with an electron probe X-ray microanalyzer (EPMA). Invisible gold was detected within the pyrite grains by EPMA and disseminated micron-sized isolated gold particles were discovered by backscattered electron (BSE) images. The texture of Au-bearing pyrite and gold particles in the Yemi breccia is especially well matched with pyrite and gold from the Shuiyindong Carlin-type hydrothermal gold deposits, China. Therefore, we suggest an important role of hydrothermal fluid in karstification within the Paleozoic carbonate rock. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Weathering of Limestone)
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13 pages, 3514 KiB  
Article
Assessing Laser Cleaning of a Limestone Monument by Fiber Optics Reflectance Spectroscopy (FORS) and Visible and Near-Infrared (VNIR) Hyperspectral Imaging (HSI)
by Costanza Cucci, Olga De Pascale and Giorgio S. Senesi
Minerals 2020, 10(12), 1052; https://doi.org/10.3390/min10121052 - 25 Nov 2020
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2641
Abstract
Fiber optics reflectance spectroscopy (FORS) and visible and near-infrared (VNIR) hyperspectral imaging (HSI) were applied to assess and control the laser cleaning process of a deeply darkened limestone surface collected from the historic entrance gate of Castello Svevo, Bari, Italy. Both techniques enabled [...] Read more.
Fiber optics reflectance spectroscopy (FORS) and visible and near-infrared (VNIR) hyperspectral imaging (HSI) were applied to assess and control the laser cleaning process of a deeply darkened limestone surface collected from the historic entrance gate of Castello Svevo, Bari, Italy. Both techniques enabled us to verify the different degree of removal of a thick deposit of black crust from the surface of the walls. Results obtained were in good agreement with those of previous studies of the elemental composition achieved by application of laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS). Coupling FORS and VNIR-HSI provided important information on the optimal conditions to evaluate the conservation status and determine the more appropriate level of cleaning restoration, thus avoiding over- and/or under-cleaning. Imaging spectroscopy was used to obtain maps of areas featuring the same or different spectral characteristics, so to achieve a sufficient removal of unwanted layers, without modifying the surface underneath, and to increase the efficiency of traditional cleaning techniques. The performance of the combined non-invasive approach used in this work shows promise for further applications to other types of rocks and highlights the potential for in situ assessment of the laser cleaning process based on reflectance spectroscopy. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Weathering of Limestone)
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