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Magnesium Intake and Human Health

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A special issue of Nutrients (ISSN 2072-6643).

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (1 June 2018) | Viewed by 189367

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Prof. Dr. Federica I. Wolf

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Guest Editor

Faculty of Medicine and Fondazione Policlinico Gemelli IRCCS, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Rome, Italy
Interests: magnesium homeostasis; magnesium transport; magnesium channels; oxidative stress; cancer cells; cellular aging; signal transduction; IBD and gut microbiota, food supplements and health
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Dr. Valentina Trapani

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Patologia Generale, Facoltà di MEDICINA E CHIRURGIA, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Rome, Italy
Interests: magnesium absorption; magnesium channels; cell proliferation; human diseases, preventive medicine, aging
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Magnesium is universally recognized as an essential nutrient for human life and health. Indeed, magnesium plays an important physiologic role in every organ of the human body. Disturbances of Mg homeostasis have, therefore, been implicated in the pathophysiology of several diseases, and Mg supplementation has been evaluated in some large-scale clinical trials. The World Health Organization listed magnesium among those essential nutrients that are consumed in suboptimal amounts by the general population. In particular, this occurs in Western ("Westernized") countries, where a modest to mild Mg2+ deficiency is thought to be common. The consequences of suboptimal Mg intake are largely unknown. A deeper understanding of the link between magnesium intake, its systemic homeostasis, and human pathophysiology is therefore much needed and may foster the development of preventive and/or therapeutic measures.

Here, we invite the experts to contribute original research or review articles that illuminate the role of Mg in pathophysiologic conditions and may help to develop novel therapeutic strategies. Potential topics include, but are not limited to:

Role of magnesium deficiency in cardiovascular, metabolic, neuronal and neoplastic disorders;
Role of magnesium transporters and channels in different tissues, cell signalling and disease;
In vitro and in vivo studies on the effects of Mg2+ deficiency and/or supplementation on relevant pathologies;
Novel formulations of magnesium supplements and/or magnesium absorption.

Prof. Federica I. Wolf
Dr. Valentina Trapani
Guest Editors

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Keywords

Cardiovascular disease
Metabolic disorders
Age-related conditions
Inflammatory bowel diseases
Magnesium supplements

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Published Papers (13 papers)

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338 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Dietary Magnesium and Incident Frailty in Older People at Risk for Knee Osteoarthritis: An Eight-Year Longitudinal Study

by Nicola Veronese, Brendon Stubbs, Stefania Maggi, Maria Notarnicola, Mario Barbagallo, Joseph Firth, Ligia J. Dominguez and Maria Gabriella Caruso

Nutrients 2017, 9(11), 1253; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu9111253 - 16 Nov 2017

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 7026

Abstract

Inadequate magnesium (Mg) intake is associated with lower physical performance, but the relationship with frailty in older people is unclear. Therefore, we aimed to investigate whether higher dietary Mg intake is associated with a lower risk of frailty in a large cohort of North American individuals. Details regarding Mg intake were recorded through a food-frequency questionnaire (FFQ) and categorized as greater than/equal to Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) vs. lower. Frailty was defined using the Study of Osteoporotic Fractures index. Multivariable Cox’s regression analyses, calculating hazard ratios (HRs) with 95% confidence intervals (CIs), were undertaken by sex. In total, 4421 individuals with knee osteoarthritis or who were at high risk without frailty at baseline (mean age: 61.3, females = 58.0%) were followed for 8 years. After adjusting for 11 potential baseline confounders, reaching the RDA for Mg lowered risk of frailty among men (total n = 1857, HR = 0.51; 95% CI: 0.26–0.93), whilst no significant associations were found in women (total n = 2564). Each 100 mg of dietary Mg intake at baseline corresponded to a 22% reduction in men (HR = 0.78; 95% CI: 0.62–0.97; p = 0.03), but not in women (HR = 1.05; 95% CI: 0.89–1.23). In conclusion, higher dietary Mg intake appears to reduce the risk of frailty in men, but not in women. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Magnesium Intake and Human Health)

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21 pages, 815 KiB

Open AccessReview

Dietary Magnesium and Cardiovascular Disease: A Review with Emphasis in Epidemiological Studies

by Nuria Rosique-Esteban, Marta Guasch-Ferré, Pablo Hernández-Alonso and Jordi Salas-Salvadó

Nutrients 2018, 10(2), 168; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu10020168 - 1 Feb 2018

Cited by 113 | Viewed by 21624

Abstract

Magnesium (Mg) is an essential dietary element for humans involved in key biological processes. A growing body of evidence from epidemiological studies, randomized controlled trials (RCTs) and meta-analyses have indicated inverse associations between Mg intake and cardiovascular diseases (CVD). The present review aims to summarize recent scientific evidence on the topic, with a focus on data from epidemiological studies assessing the associations between Mg intake and major cardiovascular (CV) risk factors and CVD. We also aimed to review current literature on circulating Mg and CVD, as well as potential biological processes underlying these observations. We concluded that high Mg intake is associated with lower risk of major CV risk factors (mainly metabolic syndrome, diabetes and hypertension), stroke and total CVD. Higher levels of circulating Mg are associated with lower risk of CVD, mainly ischemic heart disease and coronary heart disease. Further, RCTs and prospective studies would help to clarify whether Mg intake and Mg circulating levels may also protect against other CVDs and CVD death. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Magnesium Intake and Human Health)

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12 pages, 252 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Dietary Magnesium Intake and Hyperuricemia among US Adults

by Yiying Zhang and Hongbin Qiu

Nutrients 2018, 10(3), 296; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu10030296 - 2 Mar 2018

Cited by 41 | Viewed by 8011

Abstract

To assess the association between dietary magnesium intake and hyperuricemia in United States (US) adults, we extracted 26,796 US adults aged 20–85 years from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) in 2001–2014. All dietary intake was measured through 24 h dietary recall method. Multivariable logistic regression analysis was performed to investigate the association between magnesium intake and hyperuricemia after adjusting for several important confounding variables. When compared to the lowest quintile (Q1), for male, adjusted odds ratios (ORs) of hyperuricemia in the second quintile (Q2) to the fifth quintile (Q5) of the magnesium intake were 0.83 (95% CI: 0.72–0.95), 0.74 (0.64–0.85), 0.78 (0.67–0.90), and 0.70 (0.58–0.84, p for trend = 0.0003), respectively. For female, OR was 0.75 (0.62–0.90) in the fourth quintile (Q4) (p for trend = 0.0242). As compared to Q4 of magnesium intake (contains recommended amount), the relative odds of hyperuricemia were increased by 1.29 times in Q1 (OR = 1.29, 1.11–1.50) in male. The ORs were 1.33 (1.11–1.61) in Q1, 1.27 (1.07–1.50) in Q2 in female. Our results indicated that increased magnesium intake was associated with decreased hyperuricemia risk. It also indicated the importance of recommended dietary allowance (RDA) of magnesium and the potential function of magnesium intake in the prevention of hyperuricemia. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Magnesium Intake and Human Health)

12 pages, 429 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Higher Dietary Magnesium Intake and Higher Magnesium Status Are Associated with Lower Prevalence of Coronary Heart Disease in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes

by Christina M. Gant, Sabita S. Soedamah-Muthu, S. Heleen Binnenmars, Stephan J. L. Bakker, Gerjan Navis and Gozewijn D. Laverman

Nutrients 2018, 10(3), 307; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu10030307 - 5 Mar 2018

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 8280

Abstract

In type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2D), the handling of magnesium is disturbed. Magnesium deficiency may be associated with a higher risk of coronary heart disease (CHD). We investigated the associations between (1) dietary magnesium intake; (2) 24 h urinary magnesium excretion; and (3) plasma magnesium concentration with prevalent CHD in T2D patients. This cross-sectional analysis was performed on baseline data from the DIAbetes and LifEstyle Cohort Twente-1 (DIALECT-1, n = 450, age 63 ± 9 years, 57% men, and diabetes duration of 11 (7–18) years). Prevalence ratios (95% CI) of CHD by sex-specific quartiles of magnesium indicators, as well as by magnesium intake per dietary source, were determined using multivariable Cox proportional hazard models. CHD was present in 100 (22%) subjects. Adjusted CHD prevalence ratios for the highest compared to the lowest quartiles were 0.40 (0.20, 0.79) for magnesium intake, 0.63 (0.32, 1.26) for 24 h urinary magnesium excretion, and 0.62 (0.32, 1.20) for plasma magnesium concentration. For every 10 mg increase of magnesium intake from vegetables, the prevalence of CHD was, statistically non-significantly, lower (0.75 (0.52, 1.08)). In this T2D cohort, higher magnesium intake, higher 24 h urinary magnesium excretion, and higher plasma magnesium concentration are associated with a lower prevalence of CHD. Full article

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13 pages, 936 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Dietary Intake of Magnesium or Calcium and Chemotherapy-Induced Peripheral Neuropathy in Colorectal Cancer Patients

by Evertine Wesselink, Renate M. Winkels, Harm Van Baar, Anne J. M. R. Geijsen, Moniek Van Zutphen, Henk K. Van Halteren, Bibi M. E. Hansson, Sandra A. Radema, Johannes H. W. De Wilt, Ellen Kampman and Dieuwertje E. G. Kok

Nutrients 2018, 10(4), 398; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu10040398 - 23 Mar 2018

Cited by 22 | Viewed by 12974

Abstract

Chemotherapy-induced peripheral neuropathy (CIPN) is a common and severe side-effect in colorectal cancer (CRC) patients. This study assessed the association between habitual dietary intake of magnesium or calcium and prevalence and severity of chronic CIPN in CRC patients receiving adjuvant chemotherapy. For this prospective cohort study, 196 CRC patients were considered. Magnesium and calcium intake was determined using a food frequency questionnaire at diagnosis, during and after chemotherapy. Chronic CIPN was assessed 12 months after diagnosis using the quality of life questionnaire CIPN20. Prevalence ratios were calculated to assess the association between magnesium or calcium intake and the prevalence of CIPN. Multivariable linear regression analysis was used to assess the association between magnesium or calcium intake and severity of CIPN. CIPN was reported by 160 (82%) patients. Magnesium intake during chemotherapy was statistically significantly associated with lower prevalence of CIPN (prevalence ratio (PR) 0.53, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.32, 0.92). Furthermore, higher dietary intake of magnesium during (β −1.08, 95% CI −1.95, −0.22) and after chemotherapy (β −0.93, 95% CI −1.81, −0.06) was associated with less severe CIPN. No associations were found for calcium intake and the prevalence and severity of CIPN. To conclude, we observed an association between higher dietary magnesium intake and lower prevalence and severity of CIPN in CRC patients. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Magnesium Intake and Human Health)

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7 pages, 232 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Changes of Blood Pressure and Hemodynamic Parameters after Oral Magnesium Supplementation in Patients with Essential Hypertension—An Intervention Study

by Nikolina Banjanin and Goran Belojevic

Nutrients 2018, 10(5), 581; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu10050581 - 8 May 2018

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 31113

Abstract

The objective of this study was to examine the changes of blood pressure and hemodynamic parameters after oral magnesium supplementation in patients with essential hypertension. The single-arm non-blinded intervention study comprised 48 patients (19 men; 29 women) whose antihypertensive therapy was not changed for at least one month. The participants were asked to consume (daily at home) 300 mg of oral magnesium-oxide supplementation product for one month and to have their blood pressure and hemodynamic parameters (thoracic fluid content, stroke volume, stroke index, cardiac output, cardiac index, acceleration index, left cardiac work index and systemic vascular resistance index, heart rate) measured in the hospital before and after the intervention. Measurements were performed with impedance cardiography. After magnesium supplementation, systolic and diastolic pressures were significantly decreased (mean ± standard deviation (SD)/mmHg/from 139.7 ± 15.0 to 130.8 ± 13.4 and from 88.0 ± 10.4 to 82.2 ± 9.0, respectively; both p < 0.001). The two significant hemodynamic changes were the decrease of systemic vascular resistance index (dyn s m²/cm⁵) and left cardiac work index (kg m/m²)/mean ± SD from 2319.3 ± 753.3 to 2083.0 ± 526.9 and from 4.8 ± 1.4 to 4.4 ± 0.9, respectively; both p < 0.05). The observed hemodynamic changes may explain lowering blood pressure after magnesium supplementation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Magnesium Intake and Human Health)

12 pages, 966 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Longitudinal Study of the Role of Epidermal Growth Factor on the Fractional Excretion of Magnesium in Children: Effect of Calcineurin Inhibitors

by Kristien J. Ledeganck, Charlotte Anné, Amandine De Monie, Sarang Meybosch, Gert A. Verpooten, Marleen Vinckx, Koen Van Hoeck, Annelies Van Eyck, Benedicte Y. De Winter and Dominique Trouet

Nutrients 2018, 10(6), 677; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu10060677 - 27 May 2018

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3874

Abstract

Background: It was shown in animal models and adults that the epidermal growth factor (EGF) is involved in the pathophysiology of calcineurin inhibitor (CNI) induced renal magnesium loss. In children, however, the exact mechanism remains unclear, which was set as the purpose of the present study. Methods: Children with nephrotic syndrome and renal transplant children treated with CNI (n = 50) and non-CNI treated children (n = 46) were included in this study. Urine and serum samples were collected at three time points to determine magnesium, creatinine, and EGF. The magnesium intake was calculated from a food frequency questionnaire. Results: Serum Mg²⁺ and urinary EGF/creatinine were significantly lower in the CNI treated children, with significantly more CNI-treated children developing hypomagnesaemia. In the latter patients, the fractional excretion of magnesium (FE Mg²⁺) was significantly higher. Urinary EGF, age, renal function, and serum magnesium were independent predictors of the FE Mg²⁺. Only 29% of the children reached the recommended daily intake of magnesium. The magnesium intake did not differ between hypomagnesemic and normomagnesemic patients and was not a predictor of the FE Mg²⁺. Conclusions: In CNI-treated children who developed hypomagnesemia, the FE Mg²⁺ was increased. The urinary EGF concentration, age, and renal function are independent predictors of the FE Mg²⁺. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Magnesium Intake and Human Health)

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12 pages, 878 KiB

Open AccessReview

Serum Magnesium after Kidney Transplantation: A Systematic Review

by Anne-Sophie Garnier, Agnès Duveau, Martin Planchais, Jean-François Subra, Johnny Sayegh and Jean-François Augusto

Nutrients 2018, 10(6), 729; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu10060729 - 6 Jun 2018

Cited by 29 | Viewed by 8376

Abstract

Magnesium (Mg) status has recently drawn close attention in chronic kidney disease and in kidney transplant recipients. This review aims to evaluate the body of evidence linking hypomagnesemia to clinical consequences in these specific populations. After a brief summary of the main mechanisms involved in Mg regulation and of Mg status in end-stage renal disease, the review focuses on the relationship between hypomagnesemia and cardiovascular risk in kidney transplant recipients. A body of evidence in recent studies points to a negative impact of hypomagnesemia on post-transplant diabetes mellitus (PTDM) and cardiovascular risk, which currently represent the main threat for morbidity and mortality in kidney transplantation. Deleterious biological mechanisms induced by hypomagnesemia are also discussed. While data analysis enables us to conclude that hypomagnesemia is linked to the development of PTDM, studies prospectively evaluating the impact of hypomagnesemia correction after kidney transplantation are still lacking and needed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Magnesium Intake and Human Health)

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23 pages, 4829 KiB

Open AccessReview

The Role of Magnesium in Neurological Disorders

by Anna E. Kirkland, Gabrielle L. Sarlo and Kathleen F. Holton

Nutrients 2018, 10(6), 730; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu10060730 - 6 Jun 2018

Cited by 217 | Viewed by 56447

Abstract

Magnesium is well known for its diverse actions within the human body. From a neurological standpoint, magnesium plays an essential role in nerve transmission and neuromuscular conduction. It also functions in a protective role against excessive excitation that can lead to neuronal cell death (excitotoxicity), and has been implicated in multiple neurological disorders. Due to these important functions within the nervous system, magnesium is a mineral of intense interest for the potential prevention and treatment of neurological disorders. Current literature is reviewed for migraine, chronic pain, epilepsy, Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s, and stroke, as well as the commonly comorbid conditions of anxiety and depression. Previous reviews and meta-analyses are used to set the scene for magnesium research across neurological conditions, while current research is reviewed in greater detail to update the literature and demonstrate the progress (or lack thereof) in the field. There is strong data to suggest a role for magnesium in migraine and depression, and emerging data to suggest a protective effect of magnesium for chronic pain, anxiety, and stroke. More research is needed on magnesium as an adjunct treatment in epilepsy, and to further clarify its role in Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s. Overall, the mechanistic attributes of magnesium in neurological diseases connote the macromineral as a potential target for neurological disease prevention and treatment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Magnesium Intake and Human Health)

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12 pages, 2853 KiB

Open AccessArticle

TRPM6 is Essential for Magnesium Uptake and Epithelial Cell Function in the Colon

by Francesca Luongo, Giuseppe Pietropaolo, Mathieu Gautier, Isabelle Dhennin-Duthille, Halima Ouadid-Ahidouch, Federica I. Wolf and Valentina Trapani

Nutrients 2018, 10(6), 784; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu10060784 - 18 Jun 2018

Cited by 41 | Viewed by 6810

Abstract

Intestinal magnesium (Mg) uptake is essential for systemic Mg homeostasis. Colon cells express the two highly homologous transient receptor potential melastatin type (TRPM) 6 and 7 Mg²⁺ channels, but their precise function and the consequences of their mutual interaction are not clear. To explore the functional role of TRPM6 and TRPM7 in the colon, we used human colon cell lines that innately express both channels and analyzed the functional consequences of genetic knocking-down, by RNA interference, or pharmacological inhibition, by NS8593, of either channel. TRPM7 silencing caused an increase in Mg²⁺ influx, and correspondingly enhanced cell proliferation and migration, while downregulation of TRPM6 did not affect significantly either Mg²⁺ influx or cell proliferation. Exposure to the specific TRPM6/7 inhibitor NS8593 reduced Mg²⁺ influx, and consequently cell proliferation and migration, but Mg supplementation rescued the inhibition. We propose a model whereby in colon cells the functional Mg²⁺ channel at the plasma membrane may consist of both TRPM7 homomers and TRPM6/7 heteromers. A different expression ratio between the two proteins may result in different functional properties. Altogether, our findings confirm that TRPM6 cannot be replaced by TRPM7, and that TRPM6/7 complexes and TRPM6/7-mediated Mg²⁺ influx are indispensable in human epithelial colon cells. Full article

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14 pages, 652 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Pilot Randomized Trial of Oral Magnesium Supplementation on Supraventricular Arrhythmias

by Pamela L. Lutsey, Lin Y. Chen, Anne Eaton, Melanie Jaeb, Kyle D. Rudser, James D. Neaton and Alvaro Alonso

Nutrients 2018, 10(7), 884; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu10070884 - 10 Jul 2018

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 7928

Abstract

Low magnesium may increase the risk of atrial fibrillation. We conducted a double-blind pilot randomized trial to assess adherence to oral magnesium supplementation (400 mg of magnesium oxide daily) and a matching placebo, estimate the effect on circulating magnesium concentrations, and evaluate the feasibility of using an ambulatory heart rhythm monitoring device (ZioPatch) for assessing premature atrial contractions. A total of 59 participants were randomized; 73% were women, and the mean age was 62 years. A total of 98% of the participants completed the follow-up. In the magnesium supplement group, 75% of pills were taken, and in the placebo group, 83% were taken. The change in magnesium concentrations was significantly greater for those given the magnesium supplements than for those given the placebo (0.07; 95% confidence interval: 0.03, 0.12 mEq/L; p = 0.002). The ZioPatch wear time was approximately 13 of the requested 14 days at baseline and follow-up. There was no difference by intervention assignment in the change in log premature atrial contractions burden, glucose, or blood pressure. Gastrointestinal changes were more common among the participants assigned magnesium (50%) than among those assigned the placebo (7%), but only one person discontinued participation. In sum, compliance with the oral magnesium supplementation was very good, and acceptance of the ZioPatch monitoring was excellent. These findings support the feasibility of a larger trial for atrial fibrillation (AF) prevention with oral magnesium supplementation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Magnesium Intake and Human Health)

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8 pages, 1078 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Bioaccessibility and Bioavailability of a Marine-Derived Multimineral, Aquamin-Magnesium

by Valeria D. Felice, Denise M. O’Gorman, Nora M. O’Brien and Niall P. Hyland

Nutrients 2018, 10(7), 912; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu10070912 - 17 Jul 2018

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 6680

Abstract

Introduction: Magnesium is an essential mineral involved in a range of key biochemical pathways. Several magnesium supplements are present on the market and their degree of bioavailability differs depending on the form of magnesium salt used. Aquamin-Mg is a natural source of magnesium, containing 72 additional trace minerals derived from the clean waters off the Irish coast. However, the in vitro bioaccessibility and bioavailability of Aquamin-Mg in comparison with other supplement sources of magnesium has yet to be tested. Method: Aquamin-Mg, magnesium chloride (MgCl₂) and magnesium oxide (MgO) were subjected to gastrointestinal digestion according to the harmonized INFOGEST in vitro digestion method and in vitro bioavailability tested using the Caco-2 cell model. Magnesium concentration was measured by atomic absorption spectrophotometry (AAS). Results: Magnesium recovery from both Aquamin-Mg and MgCl₂ was greater than for MgO. Magnesium from all three sources was transported across the epithelial monolayer with Aquamin-Mg displaying a comparable profile to the more bioavailable MgCl₂. Conclusions: Our data support that magnesium derived from a marine-derived multimineral product is bioavailable to a significantly greater degree than MgO and displays a similar profile to the more bioavailable MgCl₂ and may offer additional health benefits given its multimineral profile. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Magnesium Intake and Human Health)

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14 pages, 1671 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Magnesium Supplementation on Unipolar Depression: A Placebo-Controlled Study and Review of the Importance of Dosing and Magnesium Status in the Therapeutic Response

by Beata Ryszewska-Pokraśniewicz, Anna Mach, Michał Skalski, Piotr Januszko, Zbigniew M. Wawrzyniak, Ewa Poleszak, Gabriel Nowak, Andrzej Pilc and Maria Radziwoń-Zaleska

Nutrients 2018, 10(8), 1014; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu10081014 - 3 Aug 2018

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 7229

Abstract

Animal studies using tests and models have demonstrated that magnesium exerts an antidepressant effect. The literature contains few studies in humans involving attempts to augment antidepressant therapy with magnesium ions. The purpose of our study was to assess the efficacy and safety of antidepressant treatment, in combination with magnesium ions. A total of 37 participants with recurrent depressive disorder who developed a depressive episode were included in this study. As part of this double-blind study, treatment with the antidepressant fluoxetine was accompanied with either magnesium ions (120 mg/day as magnesium aspartate) or placebo. During an 8-week treatment period, each patient was monitored for any clinical abnormalities. Moreover, serum fluoxetine and magnesium levels were measured, and pharmaco-electroencephalography was performed. The fluoxetine + magnesium and fluoxetine + placebo groups showed no significant differences in either Hamilton Depression Rating Scale (HDRS) scores or serum magnesium levels at any stage of treatment. Multivariate statistical analysis of the whole investigated group showed that the following parameters increased the odds of effective treatment: lower baseline HDRS scores, female gender, smoking, and treatment augmentation with magnesium. The parameters that increased the odds of remission were lower baseline HDRS scores, shorter history of disease, the presence of antidepressant-induced changes in the pharmaco-EEG profile at 6 h after treatment, and the fact of receiving treatment augmented with magnesium ions. The limitation of this study is a small sample size. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Magnesium Intake and Human Health)

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