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A special issue of Pathogens (ISSN 2076-0817). This special issue belongs to the section "Ticks".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 June 2022) | Viewed by 27032

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Belkis Corona-González

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Guest Editor

Department of Animal Health, National Center for Animal and Plant Health, San José de las Lajas, CP 32700 Mayabeque, Cuba
Interests: molecular parasitology; zoonotic agents; ticks; tick-borne diseases

Mr. Adrian A. Díaz-Sánchez

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Guest Editor

Department of Biology, University of Saskatchewan, 112 Science Place, Saskatoon, SK S7N 5E2, Canada
Interests: Ticks and tick-borne diseases; Molecular epidemiology and parasitology; Ecology, evolution, and population genetics of Ixodidae ticks (Amblyomma, Dermacentor, Ixodes and Rhipicephalus), and their microbiomes

Dr. Dasiel Obregon

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor

School of Environmental Sciences, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON N1G 2W1, Canada
Interests: Preventive veterinary medicine; microbial ecology; vector-borne pathogens; host-pathogen interaction; functional metagenomics
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. Huarrisson Azevedo Santos

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Guest Editor

Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, Federal Rural University of Rio de Janeiro, Br465 Km 07, Campus of UFRRJ, Seropédica, RJ, Brazil
Interests: Theileriosis; Tick-pathogen interactions; Molecular Epidemiology and Parasitology

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Ticks are obligate blood-feeding ectoparasites of mammals, birds, and reptiles, which are globally important vectors of pathogens that impact both human and animal health. Ticks harbor and transmit a wider variety of pathogens than any other blood-sucking arthropod, including bacteria, protozoa, and viruses. The number of known tick-borne pathogens has increased dramatically since the 1980s, hence this problem is becoming increasingly urgent as it impacts public health livestock costs and performance, and the health of companion and wild animals. The spread of tick-borne diseases is increasing due to global climate change, land-use change, human population growth, translocation, and movement of animals. The current climate-driven redistribution of ticks and other hematophagous arthropods poses a challenge to public health and veterinary services, due to the emergence and re-emergence of pathogens that threaten humans and/or animals.

The successful control and prevention of tick-borne diseases (TBDs) depends on accurate knowledge of the prevalence and the risk factors associated with pathogen transmission and host infection. Diagnosis and screening are essential for the control of tick-borne diseases, both at individual and population levels. Information on the prevalence, risk factors, and geographical distribution of these infections is essential for effective surveillance and control measures. The purpose of this Special Issue is to provide a state-of-the-art compilation of papers on tick-borne diseases from different regions around the world, focusing on ecoepidemiology, surveillance, diagnosis, identification and management of risks, and prevention of TBDs. Potential topics include, but are not limited to:

Ecoepidemiology, surveillance, diagnosis, and prevention of tick-borne diseases;
Emergence and re-emergence of tick-borne pathogens;
Wildlife as reservoirs and carriers of tick-borne pathogens;
Identification and management of risks of transmission and infection of tick-borne pathogens;
Advances in tools for the detection of tick-borne pathogens;
Advances in research of tick-borne pathogens from the perspective of “One Health”.

For this Special Issue of “Pathogens”, it is our pleasure to invite authors to submit original research, communications, short notes, or review articles. We look forward to your contribution.

Dr. Belkis Corona-González
Mr. Adrian A. Díaz-Sánchez
Dr. Dasiel Obregon
Dr. Huarrisson Azevedo Santos
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Pathogens is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2200 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

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Published Papers (9 papers)

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Editorial

Jump to: Research, Review

4 pages, 229 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Advances in the Epidemiological Surveillance of Tick-Borne Pathogens

by Adrian Alberto Díaz-Sánchez, Dasiel Obregón, Huarrisson Azevedo Santos and Belkis Corona-González

Pathogens 2023, 12(5), 633; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens12050633 - 23 Apr 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1949

Abstract

Ticks are obligate blood-feeding ectoparasites of mammals, birds, and reptiles, which are globally important vectors of pathogens that impact both human and animal health [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in the Epidemiological Surveillance of Tick-Borne Pathogens)

Research

Jump to: Editorial, Review

15 pages, 2290 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Mexican Strains of Anaplasma marginale: A First Comparative Genomics and Phylogeographic Analysis

by Edgar Dantán-González, Rosa Estela Quiroz-Castañeda, Hugo Aguilar-Díaz, Itzel Amaro-Estrada, Fernando Martínez-Ocampo and Sergio Rodríguez-Camarillo

Pathogens 2022, 11(8), 873; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11080873 - 2 Aug 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2027

Abstract

The One Health approach looks after animal welfare and demands constant monitoring of the strains that circulate globally to prevent outbreaks. Anaplasma marginale is the etiologic agent of bovine anaplasmosis and is endemic worldwide. This study aimed to analyze, for the first time, the genetic diversity of seven Mexican strains of A. marginale and their relationship with other strains reported. The main features of A. marginale were obtained by characterizing all 24 genomes reported so far. Genetic diversity and phylogeography were analyzed by characterizing the msp1a gene and 5′-UTR microsatellite sequences and constructing a phylogenetic tree with 540 concatenated genes of the core genome. The Mexican strains show 15 different repeat sequences in six MSP1a structures and have phylogeographic relationships with strains from North America, South America, and Asia, which confirms they are highly variable. Based on our results, we encourage the performance of genome sequencing of A. marginale strains to obtain a high assembly level of molecular markers and the performance of extensive phylogeographic analysis. Undoubtedly, genomic surveillance helps build a picture of how a pathogen changes and evolves in geographical regions. However, we cannot discard the study of relationships pathogens establish with ticks and how they have co-evolved to establish themselves as a successful transmission system. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in the Epidemiological Surveillance of Tick-Borne Pathogens)

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15 pages, 1233 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The GP-45 Protein, a Highly Variable Antigen from Babesia bigemina, Contains Conserved B-Cell Epitopes in Geographically Distant Isolates

by Miguel Angel Mercado-Uriostegui, Luis Alberto Castro-Sánchez, Gaber El-Saber Batiha, Uriel Mauricio Valdez-Espinoza, Alfonso Falcón-Neri, Juan Alberto Ramos-Aragon, Ruben Hernández-Ortiz, Shin-Ichiro Kawazu, Ikuo Igarashi and Juan Mosqueda

Pathogens 2022, 11(5), 591; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11050591 - 18 May 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2824

Abstract

In B. bigemina, the 45 kilodaltons glycoprotein (GP-45) is the most studied. GP-45 is exposed on the surface of the B. bigemina merozoite, it is believed to play a role in the invasion of erythrocytes, and it is characterized by a high genetic and antigenic polymorphism. The objective of this study was to determine if GP-45 contains conserved B-cell epitopes, and if they would induce neutralizing antibodies. The comparative analysis of nucleotide and amino acids sequences revealed a high percentage of similarity between field isolates. Antibodies against peptides containing conserved B-cell epitopes of GP-45 were generated. Antibodies present in the sera of mice immunized with GP-45 peptides specifically recognize B. bigemina by the IFAT. More than 95% of cattle naturally infected with B. bigemina contained antibodies against conserved GP-45 peptides tested by ELISA. Finally, sera from rabbits immunized with GP-45 peptides were evaluated in vitro neutralization tests and it was shown that they reduced the percentage of parasitemia compared to sera from rabbits immunized with adjuvant. GP-45 from geographically distant isolates of B. bigemina contains conserved B-cell epitopes that induce neutralizing antibodies suggesting that this gene and its product play a critical role in the survival of the parasite under field conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in the Epidemiological Surveillance of Tick-Borne Pathogens)

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16 pages, 17966 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Possible Association between Selected Tick-Borne Pathogen Prevalence and Rhipicephalus sanguineus sensu lato Infestation in Dogs from Juarez City (Chihuahua), Northwest Mexico–US Border

by Diana M. Beristain-Ruiz, Javier A. Garza-Hernández, Julio V. Figueroa-Millán, José J. Lira-Amaya, Andrés Quezada-Casasola, Susana Ordoñez-López, Stephanie Viridiana Laredo-Tiscareño, Beatriz Alvarado-Robles, Oliver R. Castillo-Luna, Adriana Floriano-López, Luis M. Hernández-Triana, Francisco Martínez-Ibáñez, Ramón Rivera-Barreno and Carlos A. Rodríguez-Alarcón

Pathogens 2022, 11(5), 552; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11050552 - 7 May 2022

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 4336

Abstract

Tick-borne bacterial pathogens (TBBPs) show a worldwide distribution and represent a great impact on public health. The brown dog tick (Rhipicephalus sanguineus) is a vector of several pathogens that affect dogs and sometimes humans as well. In addition, TBBPs represent a diagnostic challenge and imply financial resources and medical treatment for long periods of time. In the present study, R. sanguineus s. l. was identified as the main tick species naturally parasitizing dogs that inhabit. Juárez City, Chihuahua, in the Paso del Norte region, Mexico–US Border, representing 99.8% of the cases. Additionally, an end-point PCR was performed to search for whether pathogens in R. sanguineus s. l. can transmit in DNA extracted from ticks and dog blood samples. This is the first molecular detection of Rickettsia rickettsi infecting domestic dogs in Mexico; however, other pathogens were also identified, such as Ehrlichia canis and Anaplasma platys in both ticks and dog blood samples, while Anaplasma phagocytophilum was identified only in dog blood samples. Moreover, co-detection in tick pools and co-infection in the analyzed dog blood samples could be found. Similarly, this research showed that dogs were found mostly parasitized by adult female ticks, increasing the possibility of transmission of E. canis. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in the Epidemiological Surveillance of Tick-Borne Pathogens)

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14 pages, 1455 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Dynamics of Theileria equi Infection in Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus during the Parasitic Phase in a Chronically Infected Horse

by Maristela Peckle, Huarrisson Santos, Marcus Pires, Claudia Silva, Renata Costa, Gabriela Vitari, Tays Camilo, Nelson Meireles, Patrícia Paulino and Carlos Massard

Pathogens 2022, 11(5), 525; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11050525 - 29 Apr 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1950

Abstract

Experimental studies have demonstrated that Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus transmits Theileria equi to horses. However, the degree and dynamics of this protozoan infection in the vector’s organism have not been fully elucidated. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate the infection rate and parasitic load of T. equi in R. (B.) microplus, the infection dynamics in this arthropod during experimental infestation in a horse chronically infected with T. equi, and to evaluate the trans-stadial and intrastadial transmission competence of T. equi by R. (B.) microplus. The experimental infestation period of R. (B.) microplus on the horse was 33 days, but males were found on the animal up to 60 days post-infestation. After the fifth day post-infestation, ticks and equine blood were collected every two days. Whole ticks from the same developmental stage collected in the same day were pooled. Adult ticks were dissected to extract salivary glands and gut. DNA extraction was performed for all the samples, and they were then submitted to qPCRs for T. equi diagnosis. Freshly molted nymphs collected as larvae in the horse and freshly molted males and females collected as nymphs in the horse showed equal to or greater than 75% positivity for T. equi, indicating a strong possibility of trans-stadial transmission. The longest permanence of the male ticks on the horse associated with the high positivity rate of this type of sample for T. equi indicate that the male may play a role in the intrastadial transmission of T. equi to infection-free horses. The salivary glands displayed 77.78% positivity for T. equi and presented a higher infection rate at the end of the experimental period (100% from 29 to 33 days post-infection). This study shows that R. (B.) microplus has high T. equi infection rates and that the infection rate and parasitic load increased over the experimental period. These findings confirm the importance of chronically infected horses with T. equi as a source of infection for R. (B.) microplus. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in the Epidemiological Surveillance of Tick-Borne Pathogens)

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7 pages, 570 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

A Comparison of Peripheral Blood Smears, Autologous Cell Cultures, and Reverse Line Blot Hybridisation in Screening for Anaplasma/Ehrlichia in Roaming Dogs and Symptomatic Dogs in Trinidad

by Karla Georges, Chuckwudozi Ezeokoli, Godwin Isitor, Alex Mutani, Olivier Sparagano and Candice Sant

Pathogens 2021, 10(11), 1431; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10111431 - 4 Nov 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2039

Abstract

This study compared two methods to detect cases of canine ehrlichiosis in a field setting. One method was a polymerase chain reaction for the 16S rRNA gene followed by reverse line blot hybridisation with genera and species-specific probes for Anaplasma/Ehrlichia. The second method was an autologous cell culture of peripheral leucocytes isolated from heparinised blood and maintained in a homologous canine serum in Dulbecco’s Modified Eagle medium without antibiotics. The cultures were examined under light microscopy for inclusion bodies after 48 h. Leucocytes were successfully propagated for 20 of the 34 samples submitted for autologous cell culture. Inclusion bodies were observed after cell culture in leucocytes of eight dogs. Two dogs were positive to the Anaplasma/Ehrlichia genera probe and six dogs were positive to the E. canis probe after reverse line blot hybridisation. There was acceptable agreement between reverse line blot hybridisation and cell culture results. Both reverse line blot hybridisation and autologous cell cultures can be used to detect E. canis in subclinical and clinical cases of disease. A definitive diagnosis of E. canis is best achieved by a combination of clinical signs, positive autologous cell culture, and reverse line blot hybridisation results. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in the Epidemiological Surveillance of Tick-Borne Pathogens)

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10 pages, 434 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Rickettsia lusitaniae in Ornithodoros Porcinus Ticks, Zambia

by Simbarashe Chitanga, Herman M. Chambaro, Lavel C. Moonga, Kyoko Hayashida, Junya Yamagishi, Walter Muleya, Katendi Changula, Benjamin Mubemba, Manyando Simbotwe, David Squarre, Paul Fandamu, King S. Nalubamba, Yongjin Qiu, Sawa Hirofumi and Edgar Simulundu

Pathogens 2021, 10(10), 1306; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10101306 - 12 Oct 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2665

Abstract

Rickettsial pathogens are amongst the emerging and re-emerging vector-borne zoonoses of public health importance. Though traditionally considered to be transmitted by ixodid ticks, the role of argasid ticks as vectors of these pathogens is increasingly being recognized. While bat-feeding (Ornithodoros faini) and chicken-feeding (Argas walkerae) argasid ticks have been shown to harbor Rickettsia pathogens in Zambia, there are currently no reports of Rickettsia infection in southern Africa from warthog-feeding (Phacochoerus africanus) soft ticks, particularly Ornithodoros moubata and Ornithodoros porcinus. Our study sought to expand on the existing knowledge on the role of soft ticks in the epidemiology of Rickettsia species through screening for Rickettsia pathogens in warthog burrow-dwelling soft ticks from two national parks in Zambia. The tick species from which Rickettsia were detected in this study were identified as Ornithodoros porcinus, and an overall minimal Rickettsia infection rate of 19.8% (32/162) was observed. All of the sequenced Rickettsia were identified as Rickettsia lusitaniae based on nucleotide sequence similarity and phylogenetic analysis of the citrate synthase (gltA) and 17kDa common antigen (htrA) genes. Utilizing all of the gltA (n = 10) and htrA (n = 12) nucleotide sequences obtained in this study, BLAST analysis showed 100% nucleotide similarity to Rickettsia lusitaniae. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that all of the Zambian gltA and htrA gene sequences could be grouped with those of Rickettsia lusitaniae obtained in various parts of the world. Our data suggest that Rickettsia lusitaniae has a wider geographic and vector range, enhancing to our understanding of Rickettsia lusitaniae epidemiology in sub-Saharan Africa. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in the Epidemiological Surveillance of Tick-Borne Pathogens)

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15 pages, 2292 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Occurrence and Genetic Diversity of Babesia caballi and Theileria equi in Chilean Thoroughbred Racing Horses

by Reinaldo Torres, Claudio Hurtado, Sandra Pérez-Macchi, Pedro Bittencourt, Carla Freschi, Victoria Valente Califre de Mello, Rosangela Zacarias Machado, Marcos Rogério André and Ananda Müller

Pathogens 2021, 10(6), 714; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10060714 - 7 Jun 2021

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2951

Abstract

This study aimed to serologically and molecularly survey Babesia caballi and Theileria equi in thoroughbred horses from racecourses in Chile. Additionally, the genetic diversity of the positive samples was assessed. A total of 286 thoroughbred horses from the Santiago and Valparaíso racecourses had their serum samples submitted to an ELISA for B. caballi and T. equi, and 457 samples (from the Santiago, Valparaíso, and Concepción racecourses) were tested with nested PCRs for the B. caballi 48 KDa rhoptry protein (RAP-1) and T. equi 18S rRNA genes. Selected RAP-1 and 18S positive products were sequenced to perform phylogenetic and haplotype analyses. An overall seroprevalence of 35.6% was observed for these Chilean racecourses: 23.7% for T. equi, 8.4% for B. caballi, and 3.5% for both agents. Overall, a 53.6% occurrence by nPCR was detected for the three Chilean racecourses: 44.2% for T. equi, 5.4% for B. caballi, and 3.9% for both agents. Phylogenetic analysis of T. equi and B. caballi showed genetic proximity with sequences previously detected in other countries. Haplotype analysis revealed a low diversity among the Chilean sequences, which may have originated from those reported in Brazil, Israel, or Cuba. Babesia caballi and T. equi were detected for the first time in Chilean thoroughbred horses. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in the Epidemiological Surveillance of Tick-Borne Pathogens)

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Review

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13 pages, 3195 KiB

Open AccessReview

Prevalence of Borrelia burgdorferi in Ixodidae Tick around Asia: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

by Zhenhua Ji, Miaomiao Jian, Peng Yue, Wenjing Cao, Xin Xu, Yu Zhang, Yingyi Pan, Jiaru Yang, Jingjing Chen, Meixiao Liu, Yuxin Fan, Xuan Su, Shiyuan Wen, Jing Kong, Bingxue Li, Yan Dong, Guozhong Zhou, Aihua Liu and Fukai Bao

Pathogens 2022, 11(2), 143; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11020143 - 24 Jan 2022

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 4963

Abstract

Lyme disease (LD) is a common arthropod-borne inflammatory disorder prevalent in the northern hemisphere. LD is caused by a spirochete named Borrelia burgdorferi s.l., which is transmitted to humans by ticks. Climate, environment, and other factors affect land use; recreational-behavior changes affect human contact with infected ticks. Studies in Europe and North America have looked at these aspects, but studies in Asia have not. We searched databases to identify all relevant abstracts published until March 2021. A meta-analysis was undertaken using the standard methods and procedures established by the Cochrane Collaboration. Ninety-one articles were included in our meta-analysis. The literature search identified data from nine countries (China, Japan, Malaysia, Mongolia, Pakistan, Russia Siberia region, South Korea, Thailand and Turkey). Furthermore, 53,003 ticks from six genera (Amblyomma, Dermacentor, Haemaphysalis, Hyalomma, Ixodes and Rhipicephalus) were inspected for infection with B. burgdorferi. The pooled prevalence was 11.1% (95% CI = 8.3–14.2%). Among the nine countries, China had the most studies (56) and Malaysia had the highest infection rate (46.2%). Most infected ticks were from the genera Ixodes and Haemaphysalis. Ticks of the genus Ixodes had the highest infection rate (16.9%). Obvious heterogeneity was noted in our meta-analysis. We analyzed the heterogeneity with regard to countries, genera, time points, and detection methods. This study suggests that Ixodes, Haemaphysalis and Dermacentor may be the most common tike of B. burgdorferi-positive in Asia. The highest proportion of ticks infected by B. burgdorferi were from the genus Ixodes. This meta-analysis is the first attempt to explain the B. burgdorferi infection of hard-body ticks in Asia. The infection rate for each country and infection rate of different tick genera were analyzed: there were large differences between them. The literature is concentrates mainly on East Asia, and data are limited. Our study can provide a reference for a more comprehensive and in-depth investigation of ticks in Asia infected by B. burgdorferi spirochetes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in the Epidemiological Surveillance of Tick-Borne Pathogens)

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