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A special issue of Polymers (ISSN 2073-4360).

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 March 2018) | Viewed by 68216

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Prof. Dr. Huining Xiao

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Department of Chemical Engineering, University of New Brunswick, 15 Dineen Drive, Fredericton, NB E3B 3B4, Canada
Interests: antimicrobial polymers; functinoal-modified cellulose fibres; nanoparticles; green adsorbents; responsive polymers and hydrogels; multiple-barrier and biodegradable packaging materials
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Prof. Dr. Yuanfeng Pan

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School of Chemistry & Chemical Engineering, Guangxi University, 100 Daxue East Road, Nanning, Guangxi 530004, China
Interests: functional polymers; carbohydrate polymers; green materials; adsorbent; hydrogel
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Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

With increasing public health awareness regarding the effects of bacteria and microorganisms, developing antibacterial or antimicrobial polymers has attracted substantial interest. Improving the health of human being via reducing the infection caused by various bacteria has become increasingly important. Nowadays, the rapid growth of harmful pathogens and their serious health effects pose a significant challenge to modern society. Infections by pathogenic microorganisms are of great concern in a number of areas, such as medical devices, drugs, hospital surfaces/furniture, dental restoration, surgery equipment, health care products, and hygienic applications including water purification systems, food packaging and major or domestic appliances. Antimicrobial polymers are the materials having the capability to kill/inhibit the growth of microbes on their surface or surrounding environment. Moreover, with unique chain structures and functional groups, antimicrobial polymers often generate high antimicrobial activity without inducing drug resistance; and meanwhile eliminate the leaching-out effects that are encountered by conventional antimicrobial agents with low molecular weights. The high retention and effective grafting of antimicrobial polymers render various substrates or materials antimicrobial, such as cellulose fibres, textiles, composites and coating materials.

This Special Issue, "Antimicrobial Polymers", includes research and review papers concerning the recent advances on the preparation of antimicrobial polymers, antimicrobial mechanisms, various factors influencing antimicrobial activity, and applications of antimicrobial polymers in food packaging, biomedicine, health-care and environmental material field. Antimicrobial polymers have recently emerged as a new weapon material to combat microbial contamination owing to their unique properties. In this Special Issue, the main strategies pursued for developing antimicrobial polymers, including polymer impregnation with antimicrobial agents or synthesis of polymers bearing antimicrobial moieties to address the health and environmental concerns will be discussed. The future application of these polymers, either in industrial or healthcare sectors, is anticipated to lead to extremely positive impacts, not only at the economic level, but also for the improvement of quality of life.

Prof. Dr. Huining Xiao
Prof. Dr. Yuanfeng Pan
Guest Editors

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Keywords

Antimicrobial polymers
Biocide polymers
Microbial biofilms
Hybrid antimicrobial materials
Antimicrobial activity
Non-leaching antimicrobial effect
Antimicrobial packaging materials
Medical-related antimicrobial polymers

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Published Papers (12 papers)

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10 pages, 3900 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Antibacterial Superabsorbent Polymers from Tara Gum Grafted Poly(Acrylic acid) Embedded Silver Particles

by Mingfang Chi, Chang Liu, Jie Shen, Zhehai Dong, Zi Yang and Lijuan Wang

Polymers 2018, 10(9), 945; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym10090945 - 24 Aug 2018

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 5316

Abstract

Tara gum/silver composite superabsorbent polymers were synthesized with tara gum grafted poly(acrylic acid), using K₂S₂O₈ (KPS) as an initiator and N,N′-methylenebisacrylamide (MBA) as a cross-linker. The products were characterized by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), X-ray diffraction (XRD), transmission electron microscope (TEM), scanning electron microscope (SEM) and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). The results showed that the silver ions were partially reduced to Ag⁰ and the amorphous nanoparticles containing Ag⁰ and Ag₂O were around 10~50 nm in size The tara gum/silver composite superabsorbent polymers exhibited an interconnected porous structure with strong water absorption capacity. The swelling ratio of each product could reach 473 g/g in distilled water and 62 g/g in 0.9% NaCl solution. The antimicrobial activity of the samples against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli increased with the addition of AgNO₃ from 0 to 125 mg. This work indicates that the developed tara gum/silver composite superabsorbent polymers can be potentially used for biomedical applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antimicrobial Polymers)

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15 pages, 3029 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Polyhexamethylene Biguanide and Nadifloxacin Self-Assembled Nanoparticles: Antimicrobial Effects against Intracellular Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus

by Nor Fadhilah Kamaruzzaman, Maria De Fatima Pina, Alexandru Chivu and Liam Good

Polymers 2018, 10(5), 521; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym10050521 - 12 May 2018

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 5401

Abstract

The treatment of skin and soft tissue infections caused by methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) remains a challenge, partly due to localization of the bacteria inside the host’s cells, where antimicrobial penetration and efficacy is limited. We formulated the cationic polymer polyhexamethylene biguanide (PHMB) with the topical antibiotic nadifloxacin and tested the activities against intracellular MRSA in infected keratinocytes. The PHMB/nadifloxacin nanoparticles displayed a size of 291.3 ± 89.6 nm, polydispersity index of 0.35 ± 0.04, zeta potential of +20.2 ± 4.8 mV, and drug encapsulation efficiency of 58.25 ± 3.4%. The nanoparticles killed intracellular MRSA, and relative to free polymer or drugs used separately or together, the nanoparticles displayed reduced toxicity and improved host cell recovery. Together, these findings show that PHMB/nadifloxacin nanoparticles are effective against intracellular bacteria and could be further developed for the treatment of skin and soft tissue infections. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antimicrobial Polymers)

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12 pages, 26061 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Antifungal Paper Based on a Polyborneolacrylate Coating

by Jiangqi Xu, Yujia Bai, Meijiao Wan, Yanhui Liu, Lei Tao and Xing Wang

Polymers 2018, 10(4), 448; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym10040448 - 17 Apr 2018

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 5569

Abstract

Paper documents and products are very susceptible to microbial contamination and damage. Fungi are mainly responsible for those biodeterioration processes. Traditional microbicidal strategies constitute a serious health risk even when microbes are dead. Ideal methods should not be toxic to humans and should have no adverse effects on paper, but should own a broad spectrum, good chemical stability and low cost. In this work, we utilize an advanced antimicrobial strategy of surface stereochemistry by applying a coating of a shallow layer of polyborneolacrylate (PBA), resulting in the desired antifungal performance. The PBA-coated paper is challenged with the most common air-borne fungi growing on paper, Aspergillus niger and Penicillium sp. Ten percent by weight of the coating concentration or a 19-μm infiltration of PBA is sufficient to keep the paper spotless. The PBA coating also exhibits significant inhibition of spores’ germination. After PBA coating, both physicochemical properties (paper whiteness, pH, mechanical strength) and inking performance display only slight changes, which are acceptable for general utilization. This PBA coating method is nontoxic, rapid and cost-effective, thus demonstrating great potential for applications in paper products. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antimicrobial Polymers)

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8 pages, 2034 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Discovery of an Iridium(III) Dimer Complex as a Potent Antibacterial Agent against Non-Replicating Mycobacterium smegmatis

by Guojian Liao, Xixi Peng, Ting Li, Zhengyuan Ye, Xiaohong Xiang and Chen Fu

Polymers 2018, 10(3), 297; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym10030297 - 9 Mar 2018

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 4197

Abstract

Novel agents are urgently needed to rapidly kill drug-resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Noble metal complexes, particularly polypyridyl iridium complexes serving as therapeutic agents, have attracted considerable interest recently, due to their significant cytotoxic or antimicrobial activities. Here, we reported an polypyridyl iridium dimer complex [Ir(ppy)₂Cl]₂ (3), with ppy = phenylpyridine, which was found to be active against both exponential growing and non-replicating M. smegmatis, with minimum inhibitory concentration values of 2 μg/mL, and exhibited rapid bactericidal kinetics, killing pathogens within 30–60 min. Moreover, 3 was demonstrated to generate a large amount of reactive oxygen species and to be effective in drug-resistant strains. Taken together, the selectively active iridium(III) dimer complex showed promise for use as a novel drug candidate for the treatment of M. tuberculosis infection. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antimicrobial Polymers)

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11 pages, 2947 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Tailoring Macromolecular Structure of Cationic Polymers towards Efficient Contact Active Antimicrobial Surfaces

by Rubén Tejero, Beatriz Gutiérrez, Daniel López, Fátima López-Fabal, José L. Gómez-Garcés, Alexandra Muñoz-Bonilla and Marta Fernández-García

Polymers 2018, 10(3), 241; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym10030241 - 27 Feb 2018

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 4721

Abstract

The aim of this work is the preparation of contact active antimicrobial films by blending copolymers with quaternary ammonium salts and polyacrylonitrile as matrix material. A series of copolymers based on acrylonitrile and methacrylic monomers with quaternizable groups were designed with the purpose of investigating the influence of their chemical and structural characteristics on the antimicrobial activity of these surfaces. The biocide activity of these systems was studied against different microorganisms, such as the Gram-positive bacteria Staphylococcus aureus and the Gram-negative bacteria Pseudomona aeruginosa and the yeast Candida parapsilosis. The results confirmed that parameters such as flexibility and polarity of the antimicrobial polymers immobilized on the surfaces strongly affect the efficiency against microorganisms. In contrast to the behavior of copolymers in water solution, when they are tethered to the surface, the active cationic groups are less accessible and then, the mobility of the side chain is critical for a good contact with the microorganism. Blend films composed of copolymers with high positive charge density and chain mobility present up to a more than 99.999% killing efficiency against the studied microorganisms. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antimicrobial Polymers)

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19 pages, 1968 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Novel Antibacterial Polyglycidols: Relationship between Structure and Properties

by Fabian Marquardt, Cornelia Stöcker, Rita Gartzen, Elisabeth Heine, Helmut Keul and Martin Möller

Polymers 2018, 10(1), 96; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym10010096 - 20 Jan 2018

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 5790

Abstract

Antimicrobial polymers are an attractive alternative to low molecular weight biocides, because they are non-volatile, chemically stable, and can be used as non-releasing additives. Polymers with pendant quaternary ammonium groups and hydrophobic chains exhibit antimicrobial properties due to the electrostatic interaction between polymer and cell wall, and the membrane disruptive capabilities of the hydrophobic moiety. Herein, the synthesis of cationic–hydrophobic polyglycidols with varying structures by post-polymerization modification is presented. The antimicrobial properties of the prepared polyglycidols against E. coli and S. aureus are examined. Polyglycidol with statistically distributed cationic and hydrophobic groups (cationic–hydrophobic balance of 1:1) is compared to (i) polyglycidol with a hydrophilic modification at the cationic functionality; (ii) polyglycidol with both—cationic and hydrophobic groups—at every repeating unit; and (iii) polyglycidol with a cationic–hydrophobic balance of 1:2. A relationship between structure and properties is presented. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antimicrobial Polymers)

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18 pages, 2757 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Antimicrobial Carvacrol-Containing Polypropylene Films: Composition, Structure and Function

by Max Krepker, Ofer Prinz-Setter, Rotem Shemesh, Anita Vaxman, David Alperstein and Ester Segal

Polymers 2018, 10(1), 79; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym10010079 - 16 Jan 2018

Cited by 51 | Viewed by 7557

Abstract

Significant research has been directed toward the incorporation of bioactive plant extracts or essential oils (EOs) into polymers to endow the latter with antimicrobial functionality. EOs offer a unique combination of having broad antimicrobial activity from a natural source, generally recognized as safe (GRAS) recognition in the US, and a volatile nature. However, their volatility also presents a major challenge in their incorporation into polymers by conventional high-temperature-processing techniques. Herein, antimicrobial polypropylene (PP) cast films were produced by incorporating carvacrol (a model EO) or carvacrol, loaded into halloysite nanotubes (HNTs), via melt compounding. We studied the composition-structure-property relationships in these systems, focusing on the effect of carvacrol on the composition of the films, the PP crystalline phase and its morphology and the films’ mechanical and antimicrobial properties. For the first time, molecular dynamics simulations were applied to reveal the complex interactions between the components of these carvacrol-containing systems. We show that strong molecular interactions between PP and carvacrol minimize the loss of this highly-volatile EO during high-temperature polymer processing, enabling semi-industrial scale production. The resulting films exhibit outstanding antimicrobial properties against model microorganisms (Escherichia coli and Alternaria alternata). The PP/(HNTs-carvacrol) nanocomposite films, containing the carvacrol-loaded HNTs, display a higher level of crystalline order, superior mechanical properties and prolonged release of carvacrol, in comparison to PP/carvacrol blends. These properties are ascribed to the role of HNTs in these nanocomposites and their effect on the PP matrix and retained carvacrol content. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antimicrobial Polymers)

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1913 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Preparation of Copolymer-Based Nanoparticles with Broad-Spectrum Antimicrobial Activity

by Yang Li, Pingxiong Cai, Zhang-fa Tong, Huining Xiao and Yuanfeng Pan

Polymers 2017, 9(12), 717; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym9120717 - 15 Dec 2017

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 4753

Abstract

Polyacrylate and guanidine-based nanoparticles which involve acrylate monomers and glycidyl methacrylate modified oligo-guanidine were prepared by a seeded semi-continuous emulsion polymerization. The results from transmission electron microscope and dynamic light scattering measurements showed that the nanoparticles were spherical in shape and the particle size was in the range of 80–130 nm. Antimicrobial experiments were performed with two types of bacteria, Gram-negative (Escherichia coli, ATCC 8739) and Gram-positive (Staphylococcus aureus, ATCC 6538). The as-synthesized cationic nanoparticles exhibited effective antimicrobial activities on Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus with the minimal inhibitory concentrations at 8 μg/mL and 4 μg/mL, respectively. The mechanism of action of the resulted nanoparticles against these bacteria was revealed by the scanning electron microscopic observation. In addition, the films consisting of latex nanoparticles are non-leaching antimicrobial materials with excellent antimicrobial activity, which indicates the polymers could preserve their antimicrobial activity for long-term effectiveness. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antimicrobial Polymers)

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2101 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Interactions of Biocidal Polyhexamethylene Guanidine Hydrochloride and Its Analogs with POPC Model Membranes

by Xuliang Luo, Ziran Jiang, Niya Zhang, Zixin Yang and Zhongxin Zhou

Polymers 2017, 9(10), 517; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym9100517 - 17 Oct 2017

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 5437

Abstract

The bacterial membrane-targeted polyhexamethylene guanidine hydrochloride (PHGH) and its novel analog polyoctamethylene guanidine hydrochloride (POGH) had excellent antimicrobial activities against antibiotics-resistant bacteria. However, the biocompatibility aspects of PHGH and POGH on the phospholipid membrane of the eukaryotic cell have not yet been considered. Four chemically synthesized cationic oligoguanidine polymers containing alkyl group with different carbon chain lengths, including PHGH, POGH, and their two analogs, were used to determine their interactions with zwitterionic 1-palmitoyl-2-oleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (POPC) phospholipids vesicles mimicking the eukaryotic cell membrane. Characterization was conducted by using bactericidal dynamics, hemolysis testing, calcein dye leakage, and isothermal titration calorimetry. Results showed that the gradually lengthened alkyl carbon chain of four oligoguanidine polymers increased the biocidal activity of the polymer, accompanied with the increased hemolytic activity, calcein dye leakage rate and the increased absolute value of the exothermic effect of polymer-POPC membrane interaction. The thermodynamic curve of the polymer-POPC membrane interaction exhibited a very weak exothermic effect and a poorly unsaturated titration curve, which indicated that four guanidine polymers had weak affinity for zwitterionic POPC vesicles. Generally, PHGH of four guanidine polymers had high biocidal activity and relatively high biocompatibility. This study emphasized that appropriate amphiphilicity balanced by the alkyl chain length, and the positive charge is important factor for the biocompatibility of cationic antimicrobial guanidine polymer. Both PHGH and POGH exhibited destructive power to phospholipid membrane of eukaryotic cell, which should be considered in their industry applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antimicrobial Polymers)

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5351 KiB

Open AccessArticle

pH-Mediated Antibacterial Dyeing of Cotton with Prodigiosins Nanomicelles Produced by Microbial Fermentation

by Jixian Gong, Yanfei Ren, Ranran Fu, Zheng Li and Jianfei Zhang

Polymers 2017, 9(10), 468; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym9100468 - 23 Sep 2017

Cited by 29 | Viewed by 6817

Abstract

This study developed a novel pH-mediated antimicrobial dyeing process of cotton with prodigiosins nanomicelles produced by microbial fermentation. The average diameter of the pigment nanomicelles was 223.8 nm (range of 92.4–510.2 nm), and the pigment concentration was 76.46 mg/L. It was found that the superior dyeing effect of cotton fabric was achieved by adjusting the dye bath pH. When the pH was three, dyed cotton under 90 °C for 60 min exhibited the greatest color strength with good rubbing, washing and perspiration color fastness. By the breaking strength test and XRD analysis, it was concluded that the cotton dyed under the optimum condition almost suffered no damage. In addition, due to the presence of prodigiosins, dyed cotton fabric under the optimal process showed outstanding bacteriostatic rates of 99.2% and 85.5% against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli, respectively. This research provided an eco-friendly and widely-applicable approach for antimicrobial intracellular pigments with the property of pH-sensitive solubility in water to endow cellulose fabric with color and antibacterial activity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antimicrobial Polymers)

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2678 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Microscopic Examination of Polymeric Monoguanidine, Hydrochloride-Induced Cell Membrane Damage in Multidrug-Resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa

by Xun Cao, Lu Meng, Niya Zhang and Zhongxin Zhou

Polymers 2017, 9(9), 398; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym9090398 - 31 Aug 2017

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 5310

Abstract

Advances in antimicrobial activities of molecule-containing, multiple guanidinium groups against antibiotics-resistant bacteria should be noted. The synthesized polyoctamethylene monoguanidine hydrochloride (POGH), carrying cationic amphiphilic moieties, display excellent activity against multidrug-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa (MDR-PA) and other antibiotics-resistant bacteria. The membrane damage effects of POGH on MDR-PA were clarified using beta-lactamase activity assay, confocal fluorescence microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, and transmission electron microscopy. The results showed that POGH disrupted both the outer and inner membranes and the intracellular structure of MDR-PA to different extents depending on the dose. All concentrations of POGH within 3–23 μg/mL increased the outer membrane permeability, which facilitated the release of beta-lactamase across the inner membrane. A median dose (10 μg/mL) of POGH led to the separation of the inner and outer membrane, an increase in the membrane gap, and outer membrane structure damage with still maintained overall cytoskeletal structures. The application of a 30 μg/mL dose of POGH led to the collapse of the outer membrane, cellular wrinkling, and shrinkage, and the formation of local membrane holes. The disruption of the outer and inner membranes and the formation of the local membrane holes by a relative high dose were probably the main bactericidal mechanism of POGH. The microscopic evidence explained the strong outer-membrane permeation ability of guanidine-based antimicrobial polymers, which could be considered for the molecular design of novel guanidine-based polymers, as well as the damaged membrane structure and intracellular structure of MDR-PA. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antimicrobial Polymers)

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Review

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12 pages, 1849 KiB

Open AccessReview

Recent Advances on Octahedral Polypyridyl Ruthenium(II) Complexes as Antimicrobial Agents

by Yulin Yang, Guojian Liao and Chen Fu

Polymers 2018, 10(6), 650; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym10060650 - 10 Jun 2018

Cited by 38 | Viewed by 5731

Abstract

Recent developments of therapeutic agents based on transition metals have attracted a great deal of attention. Metal drugs have advantages over other small molecule drugs, and it was demonstrated that, in a number of studies, they played an important role in pharmaceutical chemical research and clinical chemotherapy of cancers. It is worthwhile mentioning that octahedral polypyridyl ruthenium(II) complexes have shown remarkable applications in chemical biology and medicinal chemistry over the last decade. However, only very recently has there been comprehensive interest in their antimicrobial properties due to metal-related toxic concerns or neglected potential roles in microbiological systems. Our review will highlight the recent developments in octahedral polypyridyl ruthenium(III) complexes that have exhibited significant antimicrobial activities and will discuss the relationship between the chemical structure and biological process of ruthenium complexes, in both bacterial and fungal cells. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antimicrobial Polymers)

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