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A special issue of Processes (ISSN 2227-9717). This special issue belongs to the section "Environmental and Green Processes".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (15 January 2024) | Viewed by 42743

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Special Issue Editors

Prof. Dr. Hayet Djelal

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Unilasalle-Ecole des Métiers de l’Environnement, Cyclann, Campus de Ker Lann, 35170 Bruz, France
Interests: development of combined processes for the removal of organic pollutants in effluent wastewater ; bioproduction of energy or biobased materials from biomass (biowaste, macro-algae, etc.)
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Prof. Dr. Abdeltif Amrane

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Rennes Institute of Chemical Sciences, University of Rennes, CEDEX 7, 35708 Rennes, France
Interests: environmental engineering; combined processes; biological treatment; advanced (electrochemical) oxidation processes
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Prof. Dr. Nabila Khellaf

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Faculty of Engineering, Badji Mokhtar-University, PO Box 12, 23000 Annaba, Algeria
Interests: bioreactors; environmental biotechnologies; industrial effluents; green chemistry; process engineering

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The treatment of wastewater by activated sludge, known as conventional biological treatment, is widely developed. However, the removal efficiency is very low for biorecalcitrant compounds such as dyes, residue of drugs, pesticide, and hydrocarbons. Furthermore, novel processes must be developed and the consumption of energy reduced in order to reduce the environmental footprint of the processes. Thus, several improvements are possible, for example, through the development of green catalysts in advanced oxidation processes or the use of biobased materials and green energy production residues such as biochar which results from the pyrogasification of wood biomass. Another strategy is to combine wastewater treatment and energy bioproduction directly on the wastewater treatment plant site.

This Special Issue on “Application of Environmentally Friendly Technologies in Green Processes” aims to curate novel advances in the development and application of green processes in the field of the treatment of wastewater and organic micropollutants in the factory of the future.

Topics include but are not limited to:

Development of new green catalysts;
Improvement of biological treatment through the addition of biochar;
Production of bioenergy combined with wastewater treatment;
Biobased materials in wastewater treatment.

Prof. Dr. Hayet Djelal
Prof. Dr. Abdeltif Amrane
Prof. Dr. Nabila Khellaf
Guest Editors

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Keywords

environmentally friendly processing
wastewater
advanced oxidation processes
biological processes
phytoremediation processes
green catalysts
biochar
biobased materials
bioenergy
energy efficiency

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Application of Environmentally Friendly Technologies in Green Processes, 2nd Edition in Processes (1 article)

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Research

Jump to: Review

17 pages, 4884 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Exploration of Eco-Friendly Hydrochar’s Potential in Advanced Oxidative Processes for Dicamba Degradation within a Circular Bio-Economy Framework

by Tiago Guimarães, Elisa Maria Gomes da Silva, Adalin Cezar Moraes de Aguiar, Marcelo Moreira da Costa, Kamila Cabral Mielke, Kassio Ferreira Mendes, Antonio Alberto da Silva, Ana Paula de Carvalho Teixeira and Renata Pereira Lopes Moreira

Processes 2023, 11(11), 3244; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr11113244 - 17 Nov 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1211

Abstract

Dicamba, renowned for its limited sorption capacity, presents a substantial risk of contaminating surface and groundwater if the disposal of spray tank effluent is not adequately controlled. In this work, a dicamba effluent underwent treatment through a Fenton-like process employing an iron/hydrochar (Hy-Fe) composite, synthesized via hydrothermal methods using coffee husk as the precursor. The Hy-Fe displayed carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen levels of 52.30%, 5.21%, and 1.49%, respectively. Additionally, the material exhibited a specific surface area measuring 9.00 m² g⁻¹. The presence of the γ-Fe₂O₃ phase within the composite was confirmed through X-ray diffraction analysis. The Fenton-like process employing Hy-Fe demonstrated approximately 100% degradation of dicamba within 5 h. The treated effluent underwent toxicity evaluation via biological assays using beans (Phaseolus vulgaris) as indicator plants, revealing no observable signs of intoxication. These findings were corroborated by High-Performance Liquid Chromatography, providing additional confirmation of the degradation results. Additionally, decontamination of personal protective equipment potentially contaminated with dicamba was also assessed. The Hy-Fe composite demonstrated reusability across three degradation cycles, achieving degradation percentages of 100%, 70%, and 60%, respectively. The Hy-Fe composite demonstrates substantial potential for use in a Fenton-like process. This process is characterized by its simplicity, speed, and sustainability. The notable effectiveness, evidenced by high degradation rates and minimal toxicity, underscores its suitability as a practical solution for addressing dicamba contamination. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application of Environmentally Friendly Technologies in Green Processes)

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13 pages, 3421 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Sludge Reduction and Surface Investigation in Electrochemical Machining by Complexing and Reducing Agents

by Gustavo Cercal, Gabriela de Alvarenga and Marcio Vidotti

Processes 2023, 11(7), 2186; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr11072186 - 21 Jul 2023

Viewed by 1380

Abstract

Electrochemical machining (ECM) is widely applied to manufacture parts with complex geometries, used in electronic components and the automotive, military, and aeronautics industries. These parts have a surface shaped by controlled anodic dissolution at high current density levels, using a neutral solution of inorganic salts (i.e., NaCl or NaNO₃) as the electrolyte. Such conditions generate a high amount of sludge that deposits onto the surfaces of equipment, devices, cathodes, and working pieces, requiring daily and complicated sludge management during the series production in the industry. Thus, the main goal of the present work is to propose a simple way to reduce sludge generation in the ECM industrial process. To do so, complexing (EDTA) or reducing (ascorbic acid) agents were added to the electrolyte composition, creating parallel reactions to keep the metallic ions from precipitating. The complexing agent EDTA resulted in a 30% reduction in sludge mass, using an alkaline solution (pH > 10.0). The reducing agent, ascorbic acid, resulted in a 90% reduction in sludge mass, using an acidic solution (pH < 5.0). This sludge reduction has the potential to contribute significantly to increasing equipment, devices, and cathode lifetime, as well as reducing costs associated with centrifuge or filter maintenance (sludge removal from electrolyte) and increasing the productivity of industrial ECM processes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application of Environmentally Friendly Technologies in Green Processes)

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18 pages, 11200 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Mechanical Properties and Water Resistance of Magnesium Oxychloride Cement–Solidified Residual Sludge

by Haiqiang Ma, Jiling Liang, Lu Wang, Han He, Wenwu Wang, Tingting Han, Ziting Xu and Jie Han

Processes 2023, 11(2), 413; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr11020413 - 30 Jan 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2084

Abstract

As a solid waste, the amount of residual sludge produced by the municipal wastewater treatment process is escalating. How to dispose it properly is attracting much attention in society. Herein, solidifying residual sludge using magnesium oxychloride cement (MOC) is promising for converting it into building materials. Various factors of mass ratio (R_W/S) of liquid to solid, molar ratio (R_n) of MgO to MgCl₂ in MOC, mass ratio (R_m) of residual sludge to MOC, the mass concentration of Na₂SiO₃ (D_Na₂SiO₃), and dosage of fly ash (D_F) influenced the unconfined compression strength (R_C) of the as–obtained MOC–solidified residual sludge, and it was characterized using SEM and XRD analysis. The results show that the value of R_C for MOC–residual sludge solidified blocks increased initially and then decreased as R_n and R_m increased, respectively, for 60–day curing. At 10–day curing, equilibrium R_C was reached at all R_W/S values except 1.38, and at 60–day curing, R_C decreased with R_W/S increasing. The maximum R_C of 60 days of 20.90 MPa was obtained at R_W/S = 0.90, R_n = 5.0, and R_m = 1.00. Furthermore, adding Na₂SiO₃ or fly ash in the solidifying process could improve R_C. The water resistance test showed that SM13 and NF5 samples exhibited good alkaline resistance after immersion for 7 and 14 days in an aqueous solution with pH = 7.0–11.0. The water resistance of MOC–residual sludge solidified blocks decreased with increase in immersion duration in aqueous solutions. The fly ash could also help improve water resistance of MOC–solidified residual sludge in neutral and basic aqueous solutions. This work provides an important theoretical basis and possibility for the efficient disposal and comprehensive utilization of residual sludge through solidification/stabilization technology using MOC from the perspective of mechanics and water resistance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application of Environmentally Friendly Technologies in Green Processes)

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15 pages, 2455 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Optimization and Prediction of Stability of Emulsified Liquid Membrane (ELM): Artificial Neural Network

by Meriem Zamouche, Hichem Tahraoui, Zakaria Laggoun, Sabrina Mechati, Rayene Chemchmi, Muhammad Imran Kanjal, Abdeltif Amrane, Amina Hadadi and Lotfi Mouni

Processes 2023, 11(2), 364; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr11020364 - 24 Jan 2023

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 2164

Abstract

In this work, the emulsified liquid membrane (ELM) extraction process was studied as a technique for separating different pollutants from an aqueous solution. The emulsified liquid membrane used consisted of Sorbitan mono-oleate (Span 80) as a surfactant with n-hexane (C₆H₁₄) as a diluent; the internal phase used was nitric acid (HNO₃). The major constraint in the implementation of the extraction process by an emulsified liquid membrane (ELM) is the stability of the emulsion. However, this study focused first on controlling the stability of the emulsion by optimizing many operational factors, which have a direct impact on the stability of the membrane. Among the important parameters that cause membrane breakage, the surfactant concentration, the emulsification time, and the stirring speed were demonstrated. The optimization results obtained showed that the rupture rate (Tr) decreased until reaching a minimum value of 0.07% at 2% of weight/weight of Span 80 concentration with an emulsification time of 3 min and a stirring speed of 250 rpm. On the other hand, the volume of the inner phase leaking into the outer phase was predicted using an artificial neural network (ANN). The evaluation criteria of the ANN model in terms of statistical coefficient and RMSE error revealed very interesting results and the performance of the model since the statistical coefficients were very high and close to 1 in the four phases (R_training = 0.99724; R_validation = 0.99802; R_test = 0.99852; R_all data = 0.99772), and also, statistical errors of RMSE were minimal (RMSE_training= 0.0378; RMSE_validation = 0.0420; RMSE_test = 0.0509; RMSE_all data = 0.0406). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application of Environmentally Friendly Technologies in Green Processes)

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18 pages, 6848 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Study of Solidifying Surplus Sludge as Building Material Using Ordinary Portland Cement

by Jiling Liang, Han He, Jianwei Wei, Tingting Han, Wenwu Wang, Lu Wang, Jie Han, Lunqiu Zhang, Yan Zhang and Haiqiang Ma

Processes 2022, 10(11), 2234; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr10112234 - 31 Oct 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1915

Abstract

In an attempt to effectively utilize a multitude of surplus sludge from sewage treatment plants, ordinary Portland cement was used to solidify the dry surplus sludge as a building material. The dry surplus sludge and cement were mixed at different proportions with a certain dosage of water and then cured for 3–60 days at room temperature. The unconfined compression strength (R_C) of solidified blocks was investigated with respect to the effects of the ratio of liquid to solid (R_l/S), surplus sludge dosage (D_S), the dosage of sodium silicate (D_Na2SiO3), and the proportion of fly ash (W_F). The fabricated solidified blocks were characterized by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Fourier transform-infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), and X-ray Diffraction Analysis (XRD). The results demonstrated that R_C at 60 days reduced obviously with the increase in R_l/s when Ds was given, whereas R_C reduced with D_S increased to 15.0 wt% from 5.0 wt% for solidified blocks. When D_S was 5.0 wt%, R_C of 28 days was reduced from 20.87 MPa to 14.50 MPa, with an increase in R_l/s from 0.35 to 0.55. For the given R_l/s, such as R_l/s = 0.35, R_C at 60 days was 23.75 MPa, 2.80 MPa, and 2.50 MPa when D_S were 5.0 wt%, 10.0 wt%, and 15.0 wt%, respectively, which were relatively lower in comparison to that of Portland cement solidified blocks without surplus sludge (51.40 MPa). In addition, the addition of Na₂SiO₃ and fly ash was favorable in terms of improving the R_C for solidified blocks. R_C of 60 days increased initially and then reduced with the increase in D_Na2SiO3 from 0.0 wt% to 9.0 wt% at R_l/s = 0.45 and D_S = 5.0 wt%. At D_Na2SiO3 = 7.5 wt%, R_l/s = 0.45, and D_S = 5.0 wt%, the highest R_C value of 34.70 MPa was achieved after being cured for 60 days. Furthermore, R_C of 60 days increased initially and then reduced with W_F increasing from 0.0 wt% to 25.0 wt%, and the highest R_C value of 34.35 MPa was achieved at W_F = 10.0 wt%, R_l/s = 0.45, and D_S = 5.0 wt%. At the ratio of D_Na2SiO3 = 7.50 wt%, R_l/S = 0.35, W_F = 20 wt%, D_S = 15.0 wt% and M = 1.00, R_C of 28 days reached 26.70 MPa. With these values, the utilization of sludge utilized (D_S = 15.0 wt%) was increased by double compared with D_S = 5.0 wt% (20.87 MPa). To investigate the effect of environmental temperature on the mechanical properties and mass of solidified blocks, the freeze-thaw cycling experiment was carried out. The R_C of 28 days and the mass of the solidified block reduced with the number of freeze-thaw cycles, increasing for solidified blocks with D_S of 5.0 wt%, 10.0 wt%, and 15.0 wt%, manifesting a decrease of 25.60%, 32.30%, and 40.60% for R_C and 3.40%, 4.10%, and 4.90% for mass, respectively. This work provides sufficient evidence that surplus sludge has a huge potential application for building materials from the perspective of improving their mechanical properties. It provides an important theoretical basis for the disposal as well as efficient utilization of sludge. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application of Environmentally Friendly Technologies in Green Processes)

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15 pages, 2639 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Assessment and Removal of Heavy Metals and Other Ions from the Industrial Wastewater of Faisalabad, Pakistan

by Rizwan Ullah Khan, Muhammad Hamayun, Ataf Ali Altaf, Samia Kausar, Zobia Razzaq and Tehzeen Javaid

Processes 2022, 10(11), 2165; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr10112165 - 22 Oct 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2799

Abstract

The contamination of surface and groundwater is of major concern around the globe due to the fast industrialization and urbanization. The groundwater and water quality of rivers, Ravi and Chenab in Faisalabad, Pakistan are contaminated due to the industrial wastewater. The aim of this study was the assessment of the physiochemical contaminants of Faisalabad’s industrial wastewater area and the adsorptive removal of ions present in high concentrations following the National Environmental Quality Standards (NEQS) for the municipal and industrial liquid effluents of Pakistan. One of the two samples was collected from a drain carrying wastewater from different industries and other from the outlet of a drain discharging wastewater into river Chenab. The analysis results obtained indicate that most of the contaminants were below the acceptable limit of industrial wastewater NEQS, Pakistan. However, contaminants like sulfate ions (714 mg/L), total dissolved solids (33,951–34,620 mg/L) and barium ions (11–15 mg/L) were found to be higher than the allowable level of NEQS for the municipal and industrial liquid effluents for Pakistan. A novel biosorbent synthesized indigenously from Monotheca buxifolia seeds was used for the removal of sulfate, barium and TDS from the wastewater effluent samples. This biosorbent successfully reduced the sulfate ion concentration in the wastewater sample from 714 to 420 mg/L at pH 6 in 1 h. Similarly, the concentration of TDS reduced to 33,951 from 6295 mg/L at pH 4, whereas barium ions were removed from 15 to 1 mg/L at pH 10 in 1 h. Treatment of wastewater through the synthesized biosorbent efficiently removed the high concentration ions and could potentially be applied to reduce the toxic effects of these contaminants on local public health. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application of Environmentally Friendly Technologies in Green Processes)

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24 pages, 8035 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Excellent Antimicrobial, Antioxidant, and Catalytic Activities of Medicinal Plant Aqueous Leaf Extract Derived Silver Nanoparticles

by Amna Nisar Khan, Najla Nader Ali Aldowairy, Hajer Saed Saad Alorfi, Mohammad Aslam, Wafa AbuBaker Bawazir, Abdul Hameed and Muhammad Tahir Soomro

Processes 2022, 10(10), 1949; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr10101949 - 27 Sep 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3277

Abstract

Antimicrobial resistance is one of the crucial public health challenges that we need to combat. Thus, in concern over public health and the economy, controlling the emergence of infectious diseases is critical worldwide. One of the ways to overcome the influences of antimicrobial resistance is by developing new, efficient, and improved antimicrobial agents. Medicinal plant-derived silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) are under intensive examination for a variety of therapeutic purposes and targeted applications in nanomedicine and nanotechnology. Plants belonging to the genus Thevetia [Syn. Casabela], which is known for its medicinal uses and has rarely been applied for the synthesis of AgNPs, is an attractive alternative as they have a high content of secondary metabolites. Herein, using aqueous leaf extract of Cascabela thevetia, which was locally found in the Makkah region, Saudi Arabia, green synthesis of AgNPs is reported. Active components of Cascabela thevetia aqueous leaf extract were sufficient to reduce AgNO₃ into AgNPs and stabilize them as this was confirmed through UV-Visible absorption, Fourier transforms infrared (FTIR), X-ray diffraction (XRD), filed emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM), and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) studies. UV-Visible, HPLC, and FTIR analysis demonstrated the presence of gallic acid in aqueous extract and solution of C-AgNPs. The spherical Cascabela thevetia derived C-AgNPs with an average diameter in the range of 20–30 nm were highly dispersed, as seen from FESEM and TEM images, and demonstrated the high antibacterial and antifungal activities when incubated with Gram-positive bacteria Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus), Enterococcus faecalis (E. faecalis), Gram-negative bacteria Escherichia coli (E. coli), Salmonella typhimurium (S. typhimurium), Klebsiella pneumoniae (K. pneumoniae), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (P. aeruginosa) and fungi Candida albicans (C. albicans) and Candida parapsilosis (C. parapsilosis). The lowest MIC values of C-AgNPs versus S. aureus, E. faecalis, and E. coli were found. Finally, the antioxidant activity and catalytic property of C-AgNPs were assessed by neutralizing DPPH free radical and reducing methylene blue and rhodamine B dyes, respectively. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application of Environmentally Friendly Technologies in Green Processes)

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16 pages, 4799 KiB

Open AccessReview

Application of Pure and Modified Polyvinylidene Fluoride Materials for Wastewater Treatment Using UASB Reactor Technologies: A Review

by Mmontshi Lebohang Sikosana, Keneiloe Khoabane Sikhwivhilu, Richard Moutloali and Daniel Madyira

Processes 2024, 12(4), 734; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr12040734 - 4 Apr 2024

Viewed by 1297

Abstract

Wastewater treatment is now required because of the problems caused by water constraints. Wastewater is anaerobically digested to produce biogas, which can be used as a source of energy for things like lighting and heating. The upflow anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB) reactor has been recognized as an important wastewater treatment technology among anaerobic treatment methods. Although their treated effluent typically does not meet most discharge criteria, UASB reactors are generally stated to have a chemical oxygen demand (COD) reduction ranging from 60 to 90% for most types of wastewater. In comparison to traditional anaerobic procedures, anaerobic municipal wastewater treatment using membranes can produce higher effluent quality in terms of COD, suspended solids (SSs) and pathogen counts, as well as a steady treatment performance to fulfill strict discharge regulations. The objective of this review was to perform a literature review on parameters to consider when selecting a membrane to include in a UASB reactor. Membranes that are available in the market were compared in terms of both physical and chemical properties. Polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) membranes were found be superior to the others, and their modification also reduced the fouling propensity. When comparing modified PVDF (PVDF/PVDF-g-PEGMA) to pristine PVDF (116 L·m⁻² h⁻¹), a higher pure water flux (5170 L·m⁻² h⁻¹) was noted. The main drawback of such modifications could significantly increase the final membrane production costs. Research is still lacking when it comes to research on comparing the membranes and PVDF and UASB reactor technology interaction, including effects of its modification as discussed (stability, longevity of improved flux, etc. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application of Environmentally Friendly Technologies in Green Processes)

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27 pages, 1362 KiB

Open AccessReview

Various Approaches for the Detoxification of Toxic Dyes in Wastewater

by Abdulmohsen K. D. Alsukaibi

Processes 2022, 10(10), 1968; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr10101968 - 29 Sep 2022

Cited by 126 | Viewed by 12563

Abstract

Use of dyes as well as colorants in industrial processes has extensively increased. Effluents from various industries such as textile, paint, food, etc. are reported to have a diverse range of colorants. The effluents from these industries are often released into natural water bodies, causing serious water and environmental pollution, to which humans and other species are constantly exposed. Continued changes in climate have also affected water availability for people around the world. Thus, advanced treatments and removal of harmful contaminants from municipal and industrial wastewater are becoming increasingly important. Removal of dyes and colorants from wastewater can be done in a variety of ways, including physical, chemical, and biological treatments. These technologies, however, differ in terms of efficiency, cost, and environmental effect. There are many technological and economic challenges for the wastewater treatment methods currently available. The search for the most suitable strategy for successful degradation or removal of dyes from effluents is an urgent requirement. Previously published research suggests that the use of enzymes for dye removal is a more economic and effective strategy as compared to traditional techniques. Nanoparticles, with their exceptional physicochemical features, have the potential to tackle the problem of wastewater purification in a less energy-intensive way. However, extensive standardization would be a necessity for the use of different nanoparticles. Therefore, intense research in the use of enzymes and nanoparticle-based technologies may provide much needed technological solution for the remediation of a diverse range of dyes from wastewater. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application of Environmentally Friendly Technologies in Green Processes)

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28 pages, 1623 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceReview

Characterization of Slaughterhouse Wastewater and Development of Treatment Techniques: A Review

by Mary Ng, Sadou Dalhatou, Jessica Wilson, Boniface Pone Kamdem, Mercy Bankole Temitope, Hugues Kamdem Paumo, Hayet Djelal, Aymen Amine Assadi, Phuong Nguyen-Tri and Abdoulaye Kane

Processes 2022, 10(7), 1300; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr10071300 - 30 Jun 2022

Cited by 34 | Viewed by 12085

Abstract

Commercialization in the meat-processing industry has emerged as one of the major agrobusiness challenges due to the large volume of wastewater produced during slaughtering and cleaning of slaughtering facilities. Slaughterhouse wastewater (SWW) contains proteins, fats, high organic contents, microbes, and other emerging pollutants (pharmaceutical and veterinary residues). It is important to first characterize the wastewater so that adequate treatment techniques can be employed so that discharge of this wastewater does not negatively impact the environment. Conventional characterization bulk parameters of slaughterhouse wastewater include pH, color, turbidity, biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), chemical oxygen demand (COD), total organic carbon (TOC), total suspended solids (TSS), total nitrogen (TN), total phosphorus (TP), and coliform counts. Characterization studies conducted have revealed the effects of the pollutants on microbial activity of SWW through identification of toxicity of antibiotic-resistant strains of bacteria. Due to the high-strength characteristics and complex recalcitrant pollutants, treatment techniques through combined processes such as anaerobic digestion coupled with advanced oxidation process were found to be more effective than stand-alone methods. Hence, there is need to explore and evaluate innovative treatments and techniques to provide a comprehensive summary of processes that can reduce the toxicity of slaughterhouse wastewater to the environment. This work presents a review of recent studies on the characterization of SWW, innovative treatments and technologies, and critical assessment for future research. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application of Environmentally Friendly Technologies in Green Processes)

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