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13 pages, 3254 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Preparation and Optimization of Optical pH Sensor Based on Sol-Gel

by Jianxin Zhang and Lei Zhou

Sensors 2018, 18(10), 3195; https://doi.org/10.3390/s18103195 - 21 Sep 2018

Cited by 22 | Viewed by 4608

Abstract

Making use of the sol-gel technique, an optical pH sensor was prepared, which was made from an organic carrier with four indictors including congo red, bromophenol blue, cresol red, and chlorophenol red, cross-linked by tetraethyl orthosilicate (TEOS) and cellulose acetate. The actual detection [...] Read more.

Making use of the sol-gel technique, an optical pH sensor was prepared, which was made from an organic carrier with four indictors including congo red, bromophenol blue, cresol red, and chlorophenol red, cross-linked by tetraethyl orthosilicate (TEOS) and cellulose acetate. The actual detection range of the optical pH sensor is 2.5–11.0. The optimal ratio of ethyl orthosilicate, absolute ethanol, deionized water, and hydrochloric acid in glue precursor of the sensor-sensitive membrane was explored. The orthogonal experiment was designed to optimize the dosage of cellulose acetate, N,N-dimethylformamide (DMF), indicator, hydrochloric acid, and precursor glue in preparing the sensor-sensitive membrane. The linearity, measurement accuracy, repeatability, stability, and response time of the prepared pH sensor were tested. The measurement results were analyzed using a support vector machine and linear regression. The experimental results show that the optical pH sensor has a measurement accuracy of up to 0.2 pH and better stability and repeatability than the traditional pH glass electrode. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optical Waveguide Based Sensors)

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11 pages, 8138 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Sensing Characteristics of Tilted Long Period Fiber Gratings Inscribed by Infrared Femtosecond Laser

by Jian Tang, Cailing Fu, Zhiyong Bai, Changrui Liao and Yiping Wang

Sensors 2018, 18(9), 3003; https://doi.org/10.3390/s18093003 - 7 Sep 2018

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 3189

Abstract

We propose a novel tilted long period fiber grating (TLPFG) design, inscribed using a line-by-line inscription technique and an infrared femtosecond (Fs) laser. The responses of this TLPFG to external refractive index, temperature, torsion, and strain were systematically investigated to determine its sensing [...] Read more.

We propose a novel tilted long period fiber grating (TLPFG) design, inscribed using a line-by-line inscription technique and an infrared femtosecond (Fs) laser. The responses of this TLPFG to external refractive index, temperature, torsion, and strain were systematically investigated to determine its sensing characteristics. The external refractive index (RI) was measured to be −602.86 nm/RIU at an RI of ~1.432. The TLPFG was used to accurately measure temperatures up to 450 °C with a sensitivity of 103.8 pm/°C. The torsion and strain sensitivity of the device were 48.94 nm/(rad/mm) and −0.63 pm/µε, respectively. These results demonstrate that the proposed TLPFG could be used as sensors in a series of application fields including high temperatures and external environments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optical Waveguide Based Sensors)

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11 pages, 6445 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Pendulum-Type Hetero-Core Fiber Optic Accelerometer for Low-Frequency Vibration Monitoring

by Hiroshi Yamazaki, Ichiro Kurose, Michiko Nishiyama and Kazuhiro Watanabe

Sensors 2018, 18(8), 2528; https://doi.org/10.3390/s18082528 - 2 Aug 2018

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 4849

Abstract

In this paper, a novel pendulum-type accelerometer based on hetero-core fiber optics has been proposed for structural health monitoring targeting large-scale civil infrastructures. Vibration measurement is a non-destructive method for diagnosing the failure of structures by assessing natural frequencies and other vibration patterns. [...] Read more.

In this paper, a novel pendulum-type accelerometer based on hetero-core fiber optics has been proposed for structural health monitoring targeting large-scale civil infrastructures. Vibration measurement is a non-destructive method for diagnosing the failure of structures by assessing natural frequencies and other vibration patterns. The hetero-core fiber optic sensor utilized in the proposed accelerometer can serve as a displacement sensor with robustness to temperature changes, in addition to immunity to electromagnetic interference and chemical corrosions. Thus, the hetero-core sensor inside the accelerometer measures applied acceleration by detecting the rotation of an internal pendulum. A series of experiments showed that the hetero-core fiber sensor linearly responded to the rotation angle of the pendulum ranging within (−6°, 4°), and furthermore the proposed accelerometer could reproduce the waveform of input vibration in a frequency band of several Hz order. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optical Waveguide Based Sensors)

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14 pages, 5115 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Detection of Broken Strands of Transmission Line Conductors Using Fiber Bragg Grating Sensors

by Long Zhao, Xinbo Huang, Jianyuan Jia, Yongcan Zhu and Wen Cao

Sensors 2018, 18(7), 2397; https://doi.org/10.3390/s18072397 - 23 Jul 2018

Cited by 26 | Viewed by 6077

Abstract

Transmission lines are affected by Aeolian vibration, which causes strands to break and eventually causes an entire line to break. In this paper, a method for monitoring strand breaking based on modal identification is proposed. First, the natural frequency variation of a conductor [...] Read more.

Transmission lines are affected by Aeolian vibration, which causes strands to break and eventually causes an entire line to break. In this paper, a method for monitoring strand breaking based on modal identification is proposed. First, the natural frequency variation of a conductor caused by strand breakage is analyzed, and a modal experiment of the LGJ-95/15 conductor is conducted. The measurement results show that the natural frequencies of the conductor decrease with an increasing number of broken strands. Next, a monitoring system incorporating a fiber Bragg grating (FBG)-based accelerometer is designed in detail. The FBG sensor is mounted on the conductor to measure the vibration signal. A wind speed sensor is used to measure the wind speed signal and is installed on the tower. An analyzer is also installed on the tower to calculate the natural frequencies, and the data are sent to the monitoring center via 3G. Finally, a monitoring system is tested on a 110 kV experimental transmission line, and the short-time Fourier transform (STFT) method and stochastic subspace identification (SSI) method are used to identify the natural frequencies of the conductor vibration. The experimental results show that SSI analysis provides a higher precision than does STFT and can extract the natural frequency under various wind speeds as an effective basis for discriminating between broken strands. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optical Waveguide Based Sensors)

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11 pages, 2689 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Ambient Refractive-Index Measurement with Simultaneous Temperature Monitoring Based on a Dual-Resonance Long-Period Grating Inside a Fiber Loop Mirror Structure

by Renata Zawisza, Tinko Eftimov, Predrag Mikulic, Wojtek J. Bock and Leszek R. Jaroszewicz

Sensors 2018, 18(7), 2370; https://doi.org/10.3390/s18072370 - 21 Jul 2018

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 4007

Abstract

In this work, we report the experimental results on optimizing the optical structure for ambient refractive index measuring with temperature changes monitoring. The presented optical structure is based on a dual-resonance long-period grating embedded inside a fiber loop mirror, where the long-period grating [...] Read more.

In this work, we report the experimental results on optimizing the optical structure for ambient refractive index measuring with temperature changes monitoring. The presented optical structure is based on a dual-resonance long-period grating embedded inside a fiber loop mirror, where the long-period grating acts as the head of the refractive-index sensor, whereas the section of polarization maintaining fiber in the loop mirror ensures suitable temperature sensing. The optimization process was comprised of tuning the resonance and interferometric peaks by changing the state of polarization of propagating beams. Experimental results establish that the response of the proposed sensor structure is linear and goes in opposite directions: an increase in the ambient refractive index reduces the signal response, whereas a temperature increase produces an increased response. This enables us to distinguish between the signals from changes in the refractive index and temperature. Due to the filtering properties of the interferometric structure, it is possible to monitor variation in these physical parameters by observing optical power changes instead of wavelength shifts. Hence, the refractive index sensitivity has been established up to 2375.8 dB/RIU in the narrow RI range (1.333–1.341 RIU) and temperature sensitivities up to 1.1 dBm/°C in the range of 23–41 °C. The proposed sensor is dedicated to advanced chemical and biological sensor applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optical Waveguide Based Sensors)

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14 pages, 375 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Optical Strain Measurement with Step-Index Polymer Optical Fiber Based on the Phase Measurement of an Intensity-Modulated Signal

by Thomas Becker, Olaf Ziemann, Rainer Engelbrecht and Bernhard Schmauss

Sensors 2018, 18(7), 2319; https://doi.org/10.3390/s18072319 - 17 Jul 2018

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 4023

Abstract

Polymer optical fibers (POFs) have been proposed for optical strain sensors due to their large elastic strain range compared to glass optical fibers (GOFs). The phase response of a single-mode polymer optical fiber (SM-POF) is well-known in the literature, and depends on the [...] Read more.

Polymer optical fibers (POFs) have been proposed for optical strain sensors due to their large elastic strain range compared to glass optical fibers (GOFs). The phase response of a single-mode polymer optical fiber (SM-POF) is well-known in the literature, and depends on the physical deformation of the fiber as well as the impact on the refractive index of the core. In this paper, we investigate the impact of strain on a step-index polymer optical fiber (SI-POF). In particular, we discuss the responsivity of an optical strain sensor which is based on the phase measurement of an intensity-modulated signal. In comparison to the phase response of an SM-POF, we must take additional influences into account. Firstly, the SI-POF is a multi-mode fiber (MMF). Consequently, we not only consider the strain dependence of the refractive index, but also its dependency on the propagation angle

θ_{z}

. Second, we investigate the phase of an intensity-modulated signal. The development of this modulation phase along the fiber is influenced by modal dispersion, scattering, and attenuation. The modulation phase therefore has no linear dependency on the length of the fiber, even in the unstrained state. For the proper consideration of these effects, we rely on a novel model for step-index multi-mode fibers (SI-MMFs). We expand the model to consider the strain-induced effects, simulate the strain responsivity of the sensor, and compare it to experimental results. This led to the conclusion that the scattering behavior of a SI-POF is strain-dependent, which was further proven by measuring the far field at the end of a SI-POF under different strain conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optical Waveguide Based Sensors)

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22 pages, 6138 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Model-Based Position and Reflectivity Estimation of Fiber Bragg Grating Sensor Arrays

by Stefan Werzinger, Darko Zibar, Max Köppel and Bernhard Schmauss

Sensors 2018, 18(7), 2268; https://doi.org/10.3390/s18072268 - 13 Jul 2018

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3795

Abstract

We propose an efficient model-based signal processing approach for optical fiber sensing with fiber Bragg grating (FBG) arrays. A position estimation based on an estimation of distribution algorithm (EDA) and a reflectivity estimation method using a parametric transfer matrix model (TMM) are outlined [...] Read more.

We propose an efficient model-based signal processing approach for optical fiber sensing with fiber Bragg grating (FBG) arrays. A position estimation based on an estimation of distribution algorithm (EDA) and a reflectivity estimation method using a parametric transfer matrix model (TMM) are outlined in detail. The estimation algorithms are evaluated with Monte Carlo simulations and measurement data from an incoherent optical frequency domain reflectometer (iOFDR). The model-based approach outperforms conventional Fourier transform processing, especially near the spatial resolution limit, saving electrical bandwidth and measurement time. The models provide great flexibility and can be easily expanded in complexity to meet different topologies and to include prior knowledge of the sensors. Systematic errors due to crosstalk between gratings caused by multiple reflections and spectral shadowing could be further considered with the TMM to improve the performance of large-scale FBG array sensor systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optical Waveguide Based Sensors)

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10 pages, 4715 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Theoretical Analysis of a Microring Resonator Array with High Sensitivity and Large Dynamic Range Based on a Multi-Scale Technique

by Wenqin Mo, Huiyun Liu, Fang Jin, Junlei Song and Kaifeng Dong

Sensors 2018, 18(7), 1987; https://doi.org/10.3390/s18071987 - 21 Jun 2018

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 3195

Abstract

By using a multi-scale measurement technique, a high-sensitivity and large dynamic-range sensor array, which consisted of a single resonator and a series of cascaded resonators with a sensing ring and a reference ring, was modeled, and its transmission properties were investigated theoretically and [...] Read more.

By using a multi-scale measurement technique, a high-sensitivity and large dynamic-range sensor array, which consisted of a single resonator and a series of cascaded resonators with a sensing ring and a reference ring, was modeled, and its transmission properties were investigated theoretically and numerically. We also set forth the principle of a multi-scale measurement technique based on the transmission spectrum of a resonator. This sensor array could have a nearly tenfold increase in sensitivity, and an improved dynamic range in an arrow wavelength range. The simulated results were in good agreement with the theoretical analysis. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optical Waveguide Based Sensors)

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18 pages, 6804 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Numerical Simulation of a Novel Sensing Approach Based on Abnormal Blocking by Periodic Grating Strips near the Silicon Wire Waveguide

by Andrei Tsarev, Eugeny Kolosovsky, Francesco De Leonardis and Vittorio M. N. Passaro

Sensors 2018, 18(6), 1707; https://doi.org/10.3390/s18061707 - 25 May 2018

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 5241

Abstract

This paper discusses the physical nature and the numerical modeling of a novel approach of periodic structures for applications as photonic sensors. The sensing is based on the high sensitivity to the cover index change of the notch wavelength. This sensitivity is due [...] Read more.

This paper discusses the physical nature and the numerical modeling of a novel approach of periodic structures for applications as photonic sensors. The sensing is based on the high sensitivity to the cover index change of the notch wavelength. This sensitivity is due to the effect of abnormal blocking of the guided wave propagating along the silicon wire with periodic strips overhead it through the silica buffer. The structure sensing is numerically modeled by 2D and 3D finite difference time domain (FDTD) method, taking into account the waveguide dispersion. The modeling of the long structures (more than 1000 strips) is accomplished by the 2D method of lines (MoL) with a maximal implementation of the analytical feature of the method. It is proved that the effect of abnormal blocking could be used for the construction of novel types of optical sensors. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optical Waveguide Based Sensors)

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12 pages, 45238 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Tunable Nanosensor Based on Fano Resonances Created by Changing the Deviation Angle of the Metal Core in a Plasmonic Cavity

by Qiong Wang, Zhengbiao Ouyang, Yiling Sun, Mi Lin, Qiang Liu, Guoliang Zheng and Junxing Fan

Sensors 2018, 18(4), 1026; https://doi.org/10.3390/s18041026 - 29 Mar 2018

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3934

Abstract

In this paper, a type of tunable plasmonic refractive index nanosensor based on Fano resonance is proposed and investigated. The sensor comprises a metal-insulator-metal (MIM) nanocavity with a center-deviated metal core and two side-coupled waveguides. By carefully adjusting the deviation angle and distance [...] Read more.

In this paper, a type of tunable plasmonic refractive index nanosensor based on Fano resonance is proposed and investigated. The sensor comprises a metal-insulator-metal (MIM) nanocavity with a center-deviated metal core and two side-coupled waveguides. By carefully adjusting the deviation angle and distance of the metal core in the cavity, Fano resonances can be obtained and modulated. The Fano resonances can be considered as results induced by the symmetry-breaking or geometric effect that affects the field distribution intensity at the coupling region between the right waveguide and the cavity. Such a field-distribution pattern change can be regarded as being caused by the interference between the waveguide modes and the cavity modes. The investigations demonstrate that the spectral positions and modulation depths of Fano resonances are highly sensitive to the deviation parameters. Furthermore, the figure of merit (FOM) value is calculated for different deviation angle. The result shows that this kind of tunable sensor has compact structure, high transmission, sharp Fano lineshape, and high sensitivity to the change in background refractive index. This work provides an effective method for flexibly tuning Fano resonance, which has wide applications in designing on-chip plasmonic nanosensors or other relevant devices, such as information modulators, optical filters, and ultra-fast switches. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optical Waveguide Based Sensors)

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17 pages, 35518 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Measurement of a 3D Ultrasonic Wavefield Using Pulsed Laser Holographic Microscopy for Ultrasonic Nondestructive Evaluation

by Xing Wang, Guang-Ming Zhang, Hongwei Ma, Yishu Zhang and Doudou Wang

Sensors 2018, 18(2), 573; https://doi.org/10.3390/s18020573 - 13 Feb 2018

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 5465

Abstract

In ultrasonic array imaging, 3D ultrasonic wavefields are normally recorded by an ultrasonic piezo array transducer. Its performance is limited by the configuration and size of the array transducer. In this paper, a method based on digital holographic interferometry is proposed to record [...] Read more.

In ultrasonic array imaging, 3D ultrasonic wavefields are normally recorded by an ultrasonic piezo array transducer. Its performance is limited by the configuration and size of the array transducer. In this paper, a method based on digital holographic interferometry is proposed to record the 3D ultrasonic wavefields instead of the array transducer, and the measurement system consisting of a pulsed laser, ultrasonic excitation, and synchronization and control circuit is designed. A consecutive sequence of holograms of ultrasonic wavefields are recorded by the system. The interferograms are calculated from the recorded holograms at different time sequence. The amplitudes and phases of the transient ultrasonic wavefields are recovered from the interferograms by phase unwrapping. The consecutive sequence of transient ultrasonic wavefields are stacked together to generate 3D ultrasonic wavefields. Simulation and experiments are carried out to verify the proposed technique, and preliminary results are presented. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optical Waveguide Based Sensors)

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Review

Jump to: Research

27 pages, 7637 KiB

Open AccessReview

Fibre Bragg Grating Based Strain Sensors: Review of Technology and Applications

by Carlo Edoardo Campanella, Antonello Cuccovillo, Clarissa Campanella, Abdulkadir Yurt and Vittorio M. N. Passaro

Sensors 2018, 18(9), 3115; https://doi.org/10.3390/s18093115 - 15 Sep 2018

Cited by 364 | Viewed by 18000

Abstract

Fibre Bragg grating (FBG) strain sensors are not only a very well-established research field, but they are also acquiring a bigger market share due to their sensitivity and low costs. In this paper we review FBG strain sensors with high focus on the [...] Read more.

Fibre Bragg grating (FBG) strain sensors are not only a very well-established research field, but they are also acquiring a bigger market share due to their sensitivity and low costs. In this paper we review FBG strain sensors with high focus on the underlying physical principles, the interrogation, and the read-out techniques. Particular emphasis is given to recent advances in highly-performing, single head FBG, a category FBG strain sensors belong to. Different sensing schemes are described, including FBG strain sensors based on mode splitting. Their operation principle and performance are reported and compared with the conventional architectures. In conclusion, some advanced applications and key sectors the global fibre-optic strain sensors market are envisaged, as well as the main market players acting in this field. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optical Waveguide Based Sensors)

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18 pages, 1636 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperReview

Brillouin Dynamic Gratings—A Practical Form of Brillouin Enhanced Four Wave Mixing in Waveguides: The First Decade and Beyond

by Arik Bergman and Moshe Tur

Sensors 2018, 18(9), 2863; https://doi.org/10.3390/s18092863 - 30 Aug 2018

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 5464

Abstract

Brillouin-Enhanced Four-Wave-Mixing techniques, which couple four optical beams through Brillouin nonlinearity, have gained popularity in the 1980’s largely owing to their phase conjugation properties. Experiments were mainly conducted in liquid cells. The interest in Brillouin-Enhanced Four-Wave-Mixing has reawakened in the 2000’s, following the [...] Read more.

Brillouin-Enhanced Four-Wave-Mixing techniques, which couple four optical beams through Brillouin nonlinearity, have gained popularity in the 1980’s largely owing to their phase conjugation properties. Experiments were mainly conducted in liquid cells. The interest in Brillouin-Enhanced Four-Wave-Mixing has reawakened in the 2000’s, following the quest for dynamically reconfigurable gratings in optical fibers. Termed Brillouin Dynamic Grating this time around, it is, in fact, an acoustic wave, optically generated by stimulated Brillouin scattering process between two pump waves. The acoustic wave either carries the coherent information encoded by the pump beams, or in the case of sensing applications, its properties are determined by the environmental parameters. This information, in turn, is imparted to the third phase-matched optical probe wave through the elasto-optic effect. Over the last decade, this mechanism allowed for the realization of many all-optical signal processing functions and has proven instrumental in distributed sensing applications. This paper describes the basics, as well as the state of the art, of BDG-based applications in optical fibers. It also surveys the efforts being done to carry over these concepts to the photonic chip level. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optical Waveguide Based Sensors)

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