Sensors

2024

Jump to: 2023, 2022, 2021

17 pages, 6711 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Novel Electrical Equipment Status Diagnosis Method Based on Super-Resolution Reconstruction and Logical Reasoning

by Peng Ping, Qida Yao, Wei Guo and Changrong Liao

Sensors 2024, 24(13), 4259; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24134259 - 30 Jun 2024

Viewed by 916

Abstract

The accurate detection of electrical equipment states and faults is crucial for the reliable operation of such equipment and for maintaining the health of the overall power system. The state of power equipment can be effectively monitored through deep learning-based visual inspection methods, [...] Read more.

The accurate detection of electrical equipment states and faults is crucial for the reliable operation of such equipment and for maintaining the health of the overall power system. The state of power equipment can be effectively monitored through deep learning-based visual inspection methods, which provide essential information for diagnosing and predicting equipment failures. However, there are significant challenges: on the one hand, electrical equipment typically operates in complex environments, thus resulting in captured images that contain environmental noise, which significantly reduces the accuracy of state recognition based on visual perception. This, in turn, affects the comprehensiveness of the power system’s situational awareness. On the other hand, visual perception is limited to obtaining the appearance characteristics of the equipment. The lack of logical reasoning makes it difficult for purely visual analysis to conduct a deeper analysis and diagnosis of the complex equipment state. Therefore, to address these two issues, we first designed an image super-resolution reconstruction method based on the Generative Adversarial Network (GAN) to filter environmental noise. Then, the pixel information is analyzed using a deep learning-based method to obtain the spatial feature of the equipment. Finally, by constructing the logic diagram for electrical equipment clusters, we propose an interpretable fault diagnosis method that integrates the spatial features and temporal states of the electrical equipment. To verify the effectiveness of the proposed algorithm, extensive experiments are conducted on six datasets. The results demonstrate that the proposed method can achieve high accuracy in diagnosing electrical equipment faults. Full article

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18 pages, 822 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Motor Imagery EEG Signal Classification Using Distinctive Feature Fusion with Adaptive Structural LASSO

by Weihai Huang, Xinyue Liu, Weize Yang, Yihua Li, Qiyan Sun and Xiangzeng Kong

Sensors 2024, 24(12), 3755; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24123755 - 9 Jun 2024

Viewed by 1153

Abstract

A motor imagery brain–computer interface connects the human brain and computers via electroencephalography (EEG). However, individual differences in the frequency ranges of brain activity during motor imagery tasks pose a challenge, limiting the manual feature extraction for motor imagery classification. To extract features [...] Read more.

A motor imagery brain–computer interface connects the human brain and computers via electroencephalography (EEG). However, individual differences in the frequency ranges of brain activity during motor imagery tasks pose a challenge, limiting the manual feature extraction for motor imagery classification. To extract features that match specific subjects, we proposed a novel motor imagery classification model using distinctive feature fusion with adaptive structural LASSO. Specifically, we extracted spatial domain features from overlapping and multi-scale sub-bands of EEG signals and mined discriminative features by fusing the task relevance of features with spatial information into the adaptive LASSO-based feature selection. We evaluated the proposed model on public motor imagery EEG datasets, demonstrating that the model has excellent performance. Meanwhile, ablation studies and feature selection visualization of the proposed model further verified the great potential of EEG analysis. Full article

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18 pages, 1065 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Study of the Bias of the Initial Phase Estimation of a Sinewave of Known Frequency in the Presence of Phase Noise

by Francisco A. C. Alegria, Lian Xie and Dário Pasadas

Sensors 2024, 24(12), 3730; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24123730 - 8 Jun 2024

Viewed by 648

Abstract

The estimation of the parameters of a sinusoidal signal is of paramount importance in various applications in the fields of sensors, signal processing, parameter estimation, and device characterization, among others. The presence, in the measurement system, of non-ideal phenomena such as additive noise [...] Read more.

The estimation of the parameters of a sinusoidal signal is of paramount importance in various applications in the fields of sensors, signal processing, parameter estimation, and device characterization, among others. The presence, in the measurement system, of non-ideal phenomena such as additive noise in the signals, phase noise in the stimulus generation, jitter in the sampling system, frequency error in the experimental setup, among others, leads to increased uncertainty and bias in the estimated quantities obtained by least squares methods and those derived from them. Therefore, from a metrological point of view, it is important to be able to theoretically predict and quantify those uncertainties in order to properly design the measurement system and its parameters, such as the number of samples to acquire or the stimulus signal amplitude to use to minimize the uncertainty in the estimated values. Previous works have shown that the presence of these non-ideal phenomena leads to increased uncertainty and bias in the estimation of the sinewave amplitude. The present work complements this knowledge by focusing specifically on the effect of phase noise and sampling jitter in the bias of the initial phase estimation of a sinusoidal signal of known frequency (three‑parameter sine fitting procedure). A theoretical derivation of the bias of initial phase estimation that takes into consideration the presence of phase noise in the sinewave is presented. Since a Taylor series approximation was used where only the first term was retained, it was necessary to validate the analytical derivations with numerical simulations using a Monte Carlo type of procedure. This process was applied to different conditions regarding the phase noise standard deviation, initial phase value, and number of samples. It is concluded that, in most scenarios, initial phase estimation using sine fitting is unbiased in the presence of phase noise or jitter. It is shown, however, that in cases of extremely high phase noise standard deviation and a very low number of samples, a bias occurs. Full article

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13 pages, 9359 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Introduction of a Novel Structure for a Light Unmanned Free Balloon’s Payload: A Comprehensive Hybrid Study

by Norbert Hegyi, Gusztáv Fekete and János Jósvai

Sensors 2024, 24(10), 3182; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24103182 - 17 May 2024

Viewed by 790

Abstract

Payloads for light unmanned free balloons must meet several safety requirements such as being able to protect the inner electronics in order to extract scientific data and to reduce the chance of inflicting personal injury in case of an accidental fall. This article [...] Read more.

Payloads for light unmanned free balloons must meet several safety requirements such as being able to protect the inner electronics in order to extract scientific data and to reduce the chance of inflicting personal injury in case of an accidental fall. This article proposes a novel payload structure, which exhibits the form of a dodecahedron. The actual form was determined by carrying out theoretical drop tests on different polyhedrons using the finite element method (FEM). From the simulations, it could be deduced that the dodecahedron was the optimal choice, since the duration of the impact was longer, while the impact force was slightly lower. The payload was produced by additive technologies; therefore, after performing tensile tests on probable materials, PLA was selected as the optimal candidate. The theoretical results about the dodecahedron’s ability were validated by laboratory and real-life drop tests, where the new payload was subjected to 56% less impact force under a 78% longer collision time compared to a classic, rectangular cuboid design. Based on these tests, it was demonstrated that the new structure is safer and it is applicable. Full article

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18 pages, 5064 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Machine-Learning Strategy to Detect Mura Defects in a Low-Contrast Image by Piecewise Gamma Correction

by Zo-Han Lin, Qi-Yuan Lai and Hung-Yuan Li

Sensors 2024, 24(5), 1484; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24051484 - 24 Feb 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1599

Abstract

A detection and classification machine-learning model to inspect Thin Film Transistor Liquid Crystal Display (TFT-LCD) Mura is proposed in this study. To improve the capability of the machine-learning model to inspect panels’ low-contrast grayscale images, piecewise gamma correction and a Selective Search algorithm [...] Read more.

A detection and classification machine-learning model to inspect Thin Film Transistor Liquid Crystal Display (TFT-LCD) Mura is proposed in this study. To improve the capability of the machine-learning model to inspect panels’ low-contrast grayscale images, piecewise gamma correction and a Selective Search algorithm are applied to detect and optimize the feature regions based on the Semiconductor Equipment and Materials International Mura (SEMU) specifications. In this process, matching the segment proportions to gamma values of piecewise gamma is a task that involves derivative-free optimization which is trained by adaptive particle swarm optimization. The detection accuracy rate (DAR) is approximately 93.75%. An enhanced convolutional neural network model is then applied to classify the Mura type through using the Taguchi experimental design method that identifies the optimal combination of the convolution kernel and the maximum pooling kernel sizes. A remarkable defect classification accuracy rate (CAR) of approximately 96.67% is ultimately achieved. The entire defect detection and classification process can be completed in about 3 milliseconds. Full article

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2023

Jump to: 2024, 2022, 2021

21 pages, 5199 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Automatic Life Detection Based on Efficient Features of Ground-Penetrating Rescue Radar Signals

by Di Shi, Gunnar Gidion, Leonhard M. Reindl and Stefan J. Rupitsch

Sensors 2023, 23(15), 6771; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23156771 - 28 Jul 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1452

Abstract

Good feature engineering is a prerequisite for accurate classification, especially in challenging scenarios such as detecting the breathing of living persons trapped under building rubble using bioradar. Unlike monitoring patients’ breathing through the air, the measuring conditions of a rescue bioradar are very [...] Read more.

Good feature engineering is a prerequisite for accurate classification, especially in challenging scenarios such as detecting the breathing of living persons trapped under building rubble using bioradar. Unlike monitoring patients’ breathing through the air, the measuring conditions of a rescue bioradar are very complex. The ultimate goal of search and rescue is to determine the presence of a living person, which requires extracting representative features that can distinguish measurements with the presence of a person and without. To address this challenge, we conducted a bioradar test scenario under laboratory conditions and decomposed the radar signal into different range intervals to derive multiple virtual scenes from the real one. We then extracted physical and statistical quantitative features that represent a measurement, aiming to find those features that are robust to the complexity of rescue-radar measuring conditions, including different rubble sites, breathing rates, signal strengths, and short-duration disturbances. To this end, we utilized two methods, Analysis of Variance (ANOVA), and Minimum Redundancy Maximum Relevance (MRMR), to analyze the significance of the extracted features. We then trained the classification model using a linear kernel support vector machine (SVM). As the main result of this work, we identified an optimal feature set of four features based on the feature ranking and the improvement in the classification accuracy of the SVM model. These four features are related to four different physical quantities and independent from different rubble sites. Full article

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19 pages, 8157 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Data-Driven Based Response Reconstruction Method of Plate Structure with Conditional Generative Adversarial Network

by He Zhang, Chengkan Xu, Jiqing Jiang, Jiangpeng Shu, Liangfeng Sun and Zhicheng Zhang

Sensors 2023, 23(15), 6750; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23156750 - 28 Jul 2023

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 1334

Abstract

Structural-response reconstruction is of great importance to enrich monitoring data for better understanding of the structural operation status. In this paper, a data-driven based structural-response reconstruction approach by generating response data via a convolutional process is proposed. A conditional generative adversarial network (cGAN) [...] Read more.

Structural-response reconstruction is of great importance to enrich monitoring data for better understanding of the structural operation status. In this paper, a data-driven based structural-response reconstruction approach by generating response data via a convolutional process is proposed. A conditional generative adversarial network (cGAN) is employed to establish the spatial relationship between the global and local response in the form of a response nephogram. In this way, the reconstruction process will be independent of the physical modeling of the engineering problem. The validation via experiment of a steel frame in the lab and an in situ bridge test reveals that the reconstructed responses are of high accuracy. Theoretical analysis shows that as the sensor quantity increases, reconstruction accuracy rises and remains when the optimal sensor arrangement is reached. Full article

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2022

Jump to: 2024, 2023, 2021

19 pages, 2563 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Complement Method for Magnetic Data Based on TCN-SE Model

by Wenqing Chen, Rui Zhang, Chenguang Shi, Ye Zhu and Xiaodong Lin

Sensors 2022, 22(21), 8277; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22218277 - 28 Oct 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1744

Abstract

The magnetometer is a vital measurement component for attitude measurement of near-Earth satellites and autonomous magnetic navigation, and monitoring health is significant. However, due to the compact structure of the microsatellites, the stray magnetic changes caused by the complex working conditions of each [...] Read more.

The magnetometer is a vital measurement component for attitude measurement of near-Earth satellites and autonomous magnetic navigation, and monitoring health is significant. However, due to the compact structure of the microsatellites, the stray magnetic changes caused by the complex working conditions of each system will inevitably interfere with the magnetometer measurement. In addition, due to the limited capacity of the satellite–ground measurement channels and the telemetry errors caused by the harsh space environment, the magnetic data collected by the ground station are partially missing. Therefore, reconstructing the telemetry data on the ground has become one of the key technologies for establishing a high-precision magnetometer twin model. In this paper, firstly, the stray magnetic interference is eliminated by correcting the installation matrix for different working conditions. Then, the autocorrelation characteristics of the residuals are analyzed, and the TCN-SE (temporal convolutional network-squeeze and excitation) network with long-term memory is designed to model and extrapolate the historical residual data. In addition,

M A E

(mean absolute error) is used to analyze the data without missing at the corresponding time in the forecast period and decreases to 74.63 nT. The above steps realize the accurate mapping from the simulation values to the actual values, thereby achieving the reconstruction of missing data and establishing a solid foundation for the judgment of the health state of the magnetometer. Full article

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22 pages, 8574 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Adaptive Discount Factor for Deep Reinforcement Learning in Continuing Tasks with Uncertainty

by MyeongSeop Kim, Jung-Su Kim, Myoung-Su Choi and Jae-Han Park

Sensors 2022, 22(19), 7266; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22197266 - 25 Sep 2022

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 6780

Abstract

Reinforcement learning (RL) trains an agent by maximizing the sum of a discounted reward. Since the discount factor has a critical effect on the learning performance of the RL agent, it is important to choose the discount factor properly. When uncertainties are involved [...] Read more.

Reinforcement learning (RL) trains an agent by maximizing the sum of a discounted reward. Since the discount factor has a critical effect on the learning performance of the RL agent, it is important to choose the discount factor properly. When uncertainties are involved in the training, the learning performance with a constant discount factor can be limited. For the purpose of obtaining acceptable learning performance consistently, this paper proposes an adaptive rule for the discount factor based on the advantage function. Additionally, how to use the advantage function in both on-policy and off-policy algorithms is presented. To demonstrate the performance of the proposed adaptive rule, it is applied to PPO (Proximal Policy Optimization) for Tetris in order to validate the on-policy case, and to SAC (Soft Actor-Critic) for the motion planning of a robot manipulator to validate the off-policy case. In both cases, the proposed method results in a better or similar performance compared with cases using the best constant discount factors found by exhaustive search. Hence, the proposed adaptive discount factor automatically finds a discount factor that leads to comparable training performance, and that can be applied to representative deep reinforcement learning problems. Full article

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17 pages, 11455 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Water Quality Measurement and Modelling Based on Deep Learning Techniques: Case Study for the Parameter of Secchi Disk

by Feng Lin, Libo Gan, Qiannan Jin, Aiju You and Lei Hua

Sensors 2022, 22(14), 5399; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22145399 - 20 Jul 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3074

Abstract

The Secchi disk is often used to monitor the transparency of water. However, the results of personal measurement are easily affected by subjective experience and objective environment, and it is time-consuming. With the rapid development of computer technology, using image processing technology is [...] Read more.

The Secchi disk is often used to monitor the transparency of water. However, the results of personal measurement are easily affected by subjective experience and objective environment, and it is time-consuming. With the rapid development of computer technology, using image processing technology is more objective and accurate than personal observation. A transparency measurement algorithm is proposed by combining deep learning, image processing technology, and Secchi disk measurement. The white part of the Secchi disk is cropped by image processing. The classification network based on resnet18 is applied to classify the segmentation results and determine the critical position of the Secchi disk. Then, the semantic segmentation network Deeplabv3+ is used to segment the corresponding water gauge at this position, and subsequently segment the characters on the water gauge. The segmentation results are classified by the classification network based on resnet18. Finally, the transparency value is calculated according to the segmentation and classification results. The results from this algorithm are more accurate and objective than that of personal observation. The experiments show the effectiveness of this algorithm. Full article

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15 pages, 12301 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Spatial Attention-Based 3D Graph Convolutional Neural Network for Sign Language Recognition

by Muneer Al-Hammadi, Mohamed A. Bencherif, Mansour Alsulaiman, Ghulam Muhammad, Mohamed Amine Mekhtiche, Wadood Abdul, Yousef A. Alohali, Tareq S. Alrayes, Hassan Mathkour, Mohammed Faisal, Mohammed Algabri, Hamdi Altaheri, Taha Alfakih and Hamid Ghaleb

Sensors 2022, 22(12), 4558; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22124558 - 16 Jun 2022

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 3869

Abstract

Sign language is the main channel for hearing-impaired people to communicate with others. It is a visual language that conveys highly structured components of manual and non-manual parameters such that it needs a lot of effort to master by hearing people. Sign language [...] Read more.

Sign language is the main channel for hearing-impaired people to communicate with others. It is a visual language that conveys highly structured components of manual and non-manual parameters such that it needs a lot of effort to master by hearing people. Sign language recognition aims to facilitate this mastering difficulty and bridge the communication gap between hearing-impaired people and others. This study presents an efficient architecture for sign language recognition based on a convolutional graph neural network (GCN). The presented architecture consists of a few separable 3DGCN layers, which are enhanced by a spatial attention mechanism. The limited number of layers in the proposed architecture enables it to avoid the common over-smoothing problem in deep graph neural networks. Furthermore, the attention mechanism enhances the spatial context representation of the gestures. The proposed architecture is evaluated on different datasets and shows outstanding results. Full article

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11 pages, 4779 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Steganography in IoT: Information Hiding with APDS-9960 Proximity and Gestures Sensor

by Katarzyna Koptyra and Marek R. Ogiela

Sensors 2022, 22(7), 2612; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22072612 - 29 Mar 2022

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2440

Abstract

This article describes a steganographic system for IoT based on an APDS-9960 gesture sensor. The sensor is used in two modes: as a trigger or data input. In trigger mode, gestures control when to start and finish the embedding process; then, the data [...] Read more.

This article describes a steganographic system for IoT based on an APDS-9960 gesture sensor. The sensor is used in two modes: as a trigger or data input. In trigger mode, gestures control when to start and finish the embedding process; then, the data come from an external source or are pre-existing. In data input mode, the data to embed come directly from the sensor that may detect gestures or RGB color. The secrets are embedded in time-lapse photographs, which are later converted to videos. Selected hardware and steganographic methods allowed for smooth operation in the IoT environment. The system may cooperate with a digital camera and other sensors. Full article

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19 pages, 2399 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Parallel Genetic Algorithms’ Implementation Using a Scalable Concurrent Operation in Python

by Vladislav Skorpil and Vaclav Oujezsky

Sensors 2022, 22(6), 2389; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22062389 - 20 Mar 2022

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3524

Abstract

This paper presents an implementation of the parallelization of genetic algorithms. Three models of parallelized genetic algorithms are presented, namely the Master–Slave genetic algorithm, the Coarse-Grained genetic algorithm, and the Fine-Grained genetic algorithm. Furthermore, these models are compared with the basic serial genetic [...] Read more.

This paper presents an implementation of the parallelization of genetic algorithms. Three models of parallelized genetic algorithms are presented, namely the Master–Slave genetic algorithm, the Coarse-Grained genetic algorithm, and the Fine-Grained genetic algorithm. Furthermore, these models are compared with the basic serial genetic algorithm model. Four modules, Multiprocessing, Celery, PyCSP, and Scalable Concurrent Operation in Python, were investigated among the many parallelization options in Python. The Scalable Concurrent Operation in Python was selected as the most favorable option, so the models were implemented using the Python programming language, RabbitMQ, and SCOOP. Based on the implementation results and testing performed, a comparison of the hardware utilization of each deployed model is provided. The results’ implementation using SCOOP was investigated from three aspects. The first aspect was the parallelization and integration of the SCOOP module into the resulting Python module. The second was the communication within the genetic algorithm topology. The third aspect was the performance of the parallel genetic algorithm model depending on the hardware. Full article

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20 pages, 1160 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Intelligent Approach for Cloud-Fog-Edge Computing SDN-VANETs Based on Fuzzy Logic: Effect of Different Parameters on Coordination and Management of Resources

by Ermioni Qafzezi, Kevin Bylykbashi, Phudit Ampririt, Makoto Ikeda, Keita Matsuo and Leonard Barolli

Sensors 2022, 22(3), 878; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22030878 - 24 Jan 2022

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 3534

Abstract

The integration of cloud-fog-edge computing in Software-Defined Vehicular Ad hoc Networks (SDN-VANETs) brings a new paradigm that provides the needed resources for supporting a myriad of emerging applications. While an abundance of resources may offer many benefits, it also causes management problems. In [...] Read more.

The integration of cloud-fog-edge computing in Software-Defined Vehicular Ad hoc Networks (SDN-VANETs) brings a new paradigm that provides the needed resources for supporting a myriad of emerging applications. While an abundance of resources may offer many benefits, it also causes management problems. In this work, we propose an intelligent approach to flexibly and efficiently manage resources in these networks. The proposed approach makes use of an integrated fuzzy logic system that determines the most appropriate resources that vehicles should use when set under various circumstances. These circumstances cover the quality of the network created between the vehicles, its size and longevity, the number of available resources, and the requirements of applications. We evaluated the proposed approach by computer simulations. The results demonstrate the feasibility of the proposed approach in coordinating and managing the available SDN-VANETs resources. Full article

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2021

Jump to: 2024, 2023, 2022

14 pages, 3887 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Two-Exposure Image Fusion Based on Optimized Adaptive Gamma Correction

by Yan-Tsung Peng, He-Hao Liao and Ching-Fu Chen

Sensors 2022, 22(1), 24; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22010024 - 22 Dec 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3114

Abstract

In contrast to conventional digital images, high-dynamic-range (HDR) images have a broader range of intensity between the darkest and brightest regions to capture more details in a scene. Such images are produced by fusing images with different exposure values (EVs) for the same [...] Read more.

In contrast to conventional digital images, high-dynamic-range (HDR) images have a broader range of intensity between the darkest and brightest regions to capture more details in a scene. Such images are produced by fusing images with different exposure values (EVs) for the same scene. Most existing multi-scale exposure fusion (MEF) algorithms assume that the input images are multi-exposed with small EV intervals. However, thanks to emerging spatially multiplexed exposure technology that can capture an image pair of short and long exposure simultaneously, it is essential to deal with two-exposure image fusion. To bring out more well-exposed contents, we generate a more helpful intermediate virtual image for fusion using the proposed Optimized Adaptive Gamma Correction (OAGC) to have better contrast, saturation, and well-exposedness. Fusing the input images with the enhanced virtual image works well even though both inputs are underexposed or overexposed, which other state-of-the-art fusion methods could not handle. The experimental results show that our method performs favorably against other state-of-the-art image fusion methods in generating high-quality fusion results. Full article

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17 pages, 3689 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Event Detection for Distributed Acoustic Sensing: Combining Knowledge-Based, Classical Machine Learning, and Deep Learning Approaches

by Mugdim Bublin

Sensors 2021, 21(22), 7527; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21227527 - 12 Nov 2021

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 4344

Abstract

Distributed Acoustic Sensing (DAS) is a promising new technology for pipeline monitoring and protection. However, a big challenge is distinguishing between relevant events, like intrusion by an excavator near the pipeline, and interference, like land machines. This paper investigates whether it is possible [...] Read more.

Distributed Acoustic Sensing (DAS) is a promising new technology for pipeline monitoring and protection. However, a big challenge is distinguishing between relevant events, like intrusion by an excavator near the pipeline, and interference, like land machines. This paper investigates whether it is possible to achieve adequate detection accuracy with classic machine learning algorithms using simulations and real system implementation. Then, we compare classical machine learning with a deep learning approach and analyze the advantages and disadvantages of both approaches. Although acceptable performance can be achieved with both approaches, preliminary results show that deep learning is the more promising approach, eliminating the need for laborious feature extraction and offering a six times lower event detection delay and twelve times lower execution time. However, we achieved the best results by combining deep learning with the knowledge-based and classical machine learning approaches. At the end of this manuscript, we propose general guidelines for efficient system design combining knowledge-based, classical machine learning, and deep learning approaches. Full article

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14 pages, 1854 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Luminance-Degradation Compensation Based on Multistream Self-Attention to Address Thin-Film Transistor-Organic Light Emitting Diode Burn-In

by Seong-Chel Park, Kwan-Ho Park and Joon-Hyuk Chang

Sensors 2021, 21(9), 3182; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21093182 - 3 May 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3615

Abstract

We propose a deep-learning algorithm that directly compensates for luminance degradation because of the deterioration of organic light-emitting diode (OLED) devices to address the burn-in phenomenon of OLED displays. Conventional compensation circuits are encumbered by high cost of the development and manufacturing processes [...] Read more.

We propose a deep-learning algorithm that directly compensates for luminance degradation because of the deterioration of organic light-emitting diode (OLED) devices to address the burn-in phenomenon of OLED displays. Conventional compensation circuits are encumbered by high cost of the development and manufacturing processes because of their complexity. However, given that deep-learning algorithms are typically mounted onto systems on chip (SoC), the complexity of the circuit design is reduced, and the circuit can be reused by only relearning the changed characteristics of the new pixel device. The proposed approach comprises deep-feature generation and multistream self-attention, which decipher the importance of the variables, and the correlation between burn-in-related variables. It also utilizes a deep neural network that identifies the nonlinear relationship between extracted features and luminance degradation. Thereafter, luminance degradation is estimated from burn-in-related variables, and the burn-in phenomenon can be addressed by compensating for luminance degradation. Experiment results revealed that compensation was successfully achieved within an error range of 4.56%, and demonstrated the potential of a new approach that could mitigate the burn-in phenomenon by directly compensating for pixel-level luminance deviation. Full article

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15 pages, 1815 KiB

Open AccessArticle

CAFD: Context-Aware Fault Diagnostic Scheme towards Sensor Faults Utilizing Machine Learning

by Umer Saeed, Young-Doo Lee, Sana Ullah Jan and Insoo Koo

Sensors 2021, 21(2), 617; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21020617 - 17 Jan 2021

Cited by 32 | Viewed by 4665

Abstract

Sensors’ existence as a key component of Cyber-Physical Systems makes it susceptible to failures due to complex environments, low-quality production, and aging. When defective, sensors either stop communicating or convey incorrect information. These unsteady situations threaten the safety, economy, and reliability of a [...] Read more.

Sensors’ existence as a key component of Cyber-Physical Systems makes it susceptible to failures due to complex environments, low-quality production, and aging. When defective, sensors either stop communicating or convey incorrect information. These unsteady situations threaten the safety, economy, and reliability of a system. The objective of this study is to construct a lightweight machine learning-based fault detection and diagnostic system within the limited energy resources, memory, and computation of a Wireless Sensor Network (WSN). In this paper, a Context-Aware Fault Diagnostic (CAFD) scheme is proposed based on an ensemble learning algorithm called Extra-Trees. To evaluate the performance of the proposed scheme, a realistic WSN scenario composed of humidity and temperature sensor observations is replicated with extreme low-intensity faults. Six commonly occurring types of sensor fault are considered: drift, hard-over/bias, spike, erratic/precision degradation, stuck, and data-loss. The proposed CAFD scheme reveals the ability to accurately detect and diagnose low-intensity sensor faults in a timely manner. Moreover, the efficiency of the Extra-Trees algorithm in terms of diagnostic accuracy, F1-score, ROC-AUC, and training time is demonstrated by comparison with cutting-edge machine learning algorithms: a Support Vector Machine and a Neural Network. Full article

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15 pages, 4626 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Automatic Cephalometric Landmark Identification System Based on the Multi-Stage Convolutional Neural Networks with CBCT Combination Images

by Min-Jung Kim, Yi Liu, Song Hee Oh, Hyo-Won Ahn, Seong-Hun Kim and Gerald Nelson

Sensors 2021, 21(2), 505; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21020505 - 12 Jan 2021

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 4498

Abstract

This study was designed to develop and verify a fully automated cephalometry landmark identification system, based on multi-stage convolutional neural networks (CNNs) architecture, using a combination dataset. In this research, we trained and tested multi-stage CNNs with 430 lateral and 430 MIP lateral [...] Read more.

This study was designed to develop and verify a fully automated cephalometry landmark identification system, based on multi-stage convolutional neural networks (CNNs) architecture, using a combination dataset. In this research, we trained and tested multi-stage CNNs with 430 lateral and 430 MIP lateral cephalograms synthesized by cone-beam computed tomography (CBCT) to make a combination dataset. Fifteen landmarks were manually and respectively identified by experienced examiner, at the preprocessing phase. The intra-examiner reliability was high (ICC = 0.99) in manual identification. The results of prediction of the system for average mean radial error (MRE) and standard deviation (SD) were 1.03 mm and 1.29 mm, respectively. In conclusion, different types of image data might be the one of factors that affect the prediction accuracy of a fully-automated landmark identification system, based on multi-stage CNNs. Full article

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