Sustainability

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4 pages, 181 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Sustainable Pavement Engineering and Road Materials

by Edoardo Bocci

Sustainability 2022, 14(4), 2166; https://doi.org/10.3390/su14042166 - 14 Feb 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 3950

Abstract

One of the most topical research areas currently concerns the identification and improvement of technologies against climate change, environmental pollution, exploitation of natural resources, and the economic crisis [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Pavement Engineering and Road Materials)

Research

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17 pages, 4286 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comparison of the Bearing Capacity of Pavement Structures with Unbound and Cold Central-Plant Recycled Base Courses Based on FWD Data

by Audrius Vaitkus, Judita Gražulytė, Igoris Kravcovas and Rafal Mickevič

Sustainability 2021, 13(11), 6310; https://doi.org/10.3390/su13116310 - 2 Jun 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2654

Abstract

Bearing capacity changes over the year, depending on the water content in a pavement structure: the higher the water content, the lower the bearing capacity. As expected, the highest water content in a pavement structure is observed in the early spring as the [...] Read more.

Bearing capacity changes over the year, depending on the water content in a pavement structure: the higher the water content, the lower the bearing capacity. As expected, the highest water content in a pavement structure is observed in the early spring as the ice lenses melt. Thus, spring is a critical period for pavement performance, because a decrease in bearing capacity results in faster pavement deterioration. The bearing capacity of pavement structures with an unbound base course and the negative effect of spring thawing on pavement performance have been analyzed by a considerable number of researchers. However, very little is known about the bearing capacity of pavement structures with a cold-recycled base course despite the significantly increasing usage of cold-recycled mixtures. This paper focuses on the bearing capacity of both unbound and cold central-plant recycled base courses at different seasons and their stability. A cold central-plant recycled (CCPR) base course was constructed from a mixture of 38.8% reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP), 3.1% foamed bitumen and 2.3% cement. A virgin aggregate was added to achieve desirable aggregate gradation. The bearing capacity of the unbound and CCPR base layers, as well as the whole pavement structure, was evaluated by back-calculated E moduli from falling weight deflectometer (FWD) data. In addition to this, the residual pavement life was calculated using mechanistic-empirical pavement design principles. The results showed that the durability of pavement structures with a CCPR base course is more than seven times lower compared to that of pavement structures with an unbound base course, irrespective of season. Nevertheless, the bearing capacity (surface modulus E0) of the pavement structure with a CCPR base course gradually increases due to the curing processes of bituminous and hydraulic binders (in this study, within four years of operation, it increased by 28–47%, depending on the side of the road). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Pavement Engineering and Road Materials)

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20 pages, 1441 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Stabilising Rural Roads with Waste Streams in Colombia as an Environmental Strategy Based on a Life Cycle Assessment Methodology

by Alejandra Balaguera, Jaume Alberti, Gloria I. Carvajal and Pere Fullana-i-Palmer

Sustainability 2021, 13(5), 2458; https://doi.org/10.3390/su13052458 - 25 Feb 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2295

Abstract

Roads with low traffic volume link rural settlements together and connect them with urban centres, mobilising goods and agricultural products, and facilitating the transportation of people. In Colombia, most of these roads are in poor conditions, causing social, economic, and environmental problems, and [...] Read more.

Roads with low traffic volume link rural settlements together and connect them with urban centres, mobilising goods and agricultural products, and facilitating the transportation of people. In Colombia, most of these roads are in poor conditions, causing social, economic, and environmental problems, and significantly affecting the mobility, security, and economic progress of the country and its inhabitants. Therefore, it is essential to implement strategies to improve such roads, keeping in mind technical, economic, and environmental criteria. This article shows the results of the application of the environmental life cycle assessment—LCA—to sections of two low-traffic roads located in two different sites in Colombia: one in the Urrao area (Antioquia), located in the centre of the country; and another in La Paz (Cesar), located in the northeast of the country. Each segment was stabilised with alternative materials such as brick dust, fly ash, sulfonated oil, and polymer. The analysis was carried out in three stages: the first was the manufacture of the stabiliser; the second included preliminary actions that ranged from the search for the material to its placement on site; and the third was the stabilisation process, which included the entire application process, from the stabiliser to the road. The environmental impacts are mainly found in the manufacture of stabilisers (60% of the total), for sulfonated oil or polymer, due to the different compounds used during production, before their use as stabilisers. The impact categories with the greatest influence were abiotic depletion potential (ADP), global warming potential (GWP) and terrestrial ecotoxicity potential (TETP). For the stabilisation stage (impact between 40% and 99%), ash and brick dust have the highest impacts. The impact categories most influenced in this stage were: acidification potential (AP), freshwater aquatic ecotoxicity potential (FAETP), human toxicity potential (HTP), marine aquatic ecotoxicity potential (MAETP) and photochemical ozone creation potential (POCP). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Pavement Engineering and Road Materials)

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20 pages, 9216 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Modernisation of Regional Roads Evaluated Using Ex-Post CBA

by Petr Halámek, Radka Matuszková and Michal Radimský

Sustainability 2021, 13(4), 1849; https://doi.org/10.3390/su13041849 - 8 Feb 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2273

Abstract

The aim of this evaluation is to verify the telling value of the Cost and Benefits Analysis (CBA) of regional roads modernisation based on an ex-post evaluation of the investments and their impacts on the incidence of traffic accidents. A set of 144 [...] Read more.

The aim of this evaluation is to verify the telling value of the Cost and Benefits Analysis (CBA) of regional roads modernisation based on an ex-post evaluation of the investments and their impacts on the incidence of traffic accidents. A set of 144 projects were the subject of evaluation. The analysis of the actual investment costs confirmed the assumption that the majority of projects were planned with a sufficient provision. When compared with the costs foreseen for the entire set of projects, the total reduction of actual costs spent was over 11%. The investigation of project impacts on traffic accidents was based on an analysis done prior to and after construction by using the Czech Police database. The measurement results show only minimum changes in the incidence of traffic accidents in the scenario prior to and after project completion. This however strongly contradicts the project goals declared, because the projects were anticipating almost zero accidents with a fatality and a 50% reduction of accidents with health consequences. However, a slight increase in road fatalities and in light and serious injuries was measured. These facts have a significant impact on the Net Present Value (NPV) and the weighted profitability index for the entire set of projects dropped from 16.7% to −2.8%. The key recommendation is to eliminate the impact on traffic accidents in the case of project evaluations processed ex-ante for projects focused only on a reconstruction or modernisation of existing roads. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Pavement Engineering and Road Materials)

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13 pages, 7801 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Permeability and Strength of Pervious Concrete According to Aggregate Size and Blocking Material

by Vu Viet Hung, Soo-Yeon Seo, Hyun-Woo Kim and Gun-Cheol Lee

Sustainability 2021, 13(1), 426; https://doi.org/10.3390/su13010426 - 5 Jan 2021

Cited by 25 | Viewed by 5379

Abstract

The purpose of this study is to identify the differences in porosity and permeability coefficients when the mixing ratio of aggregates is different and to present the mixing ratio satisfying the strength requirement of compressive specified in a specification of Korea. Three mix [...] Read more.

The purpose of this study is to identify the differences in porosity and permeability coefficients when the mixing ratio of aggregates is different and to present the mixing ratio satisfying the strength requirement of compressive specified in a specification of Korea. Three mix ratios were suggested by considering various aggregate sizes and three cylinders were made for each ratio. The porosities of those cylinders were evaluated through the compression and water permeability test, measuring the weight of specimens in underwater and analysis of the pictured Computed Tomography (CT) image. Experiments have shown that it is best to mix 50% for 5–10 mm aggregates, 45% for 2–5 mm aggregates, and 5% for sand in terms of strength and permeability. In addition, as the proportion of fine aggregates increased, the porosity and permeability decreased. Moreover, the effectiveness of maintenance method was also examined in this study. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Pavement Engineering and Road Materials)

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16 pages, 3695 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis of Contact Stresses and Rolling Resistance of Truck-Bus Tyres under Different Working Conditions

by Minrui Guo, Xiangwen Li, Maoping Ran, Xinglin Zhou and Yuan Yan

Sustainability 2020, 12(24), 10603; https://doi.org/10.3390/su122410603 - 18 Dec 2020

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 3353

Abstract

In this work, to analyse the changing characteristics of contact stresses in the tyre–pavement interface and the functional relationship between rolling resistance and the working conditions of truck-bus tyres, a three-dimensional tyre–pavement model is established and used to predict the distribution of contact [...] Read more.

In this work, to analyse the changing characteristics of contact stresses in the tyre–pavement interface and the functional relationship between rolling resistance and the working conditions of truck-bus tyres, a three-dimensional tyre–pavement model is established and used to predict the distribution of contact stresses and rolling resistance under different working conditions of the tyre, comprising various tyre loads, inflation pressures, and velocities. Results show that the magnitude relationship between transverse and longitudinal contact stresses is related to rolling conditions, and overload and low tyre pressure are important contributors to the wear of the tyre shoulder. In addition, the proposed exponential equation presents a method that can be used to forecast rolling resistance related to the working conditions of the truck-bus tyre, and a similar method can be used to predict the rolling resistances of other types of tyres. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Pavement Engineering and Road Materials)

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17 pages, 6892 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Ageing and Cooling of Hot-Mix-Asphalt during Hauling and Paving—A Laboratory and Site Study

by Edoardo Bocci, Emiliano Prosperi, Volkmar Mair and Maurizio Bocci

Sustainability 2020, 12(20), 8612; https://doi.org/10.3390/su12208612 - 17 Oct 2020

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 3063

Abstract

In road construction, it can happen that, for different reasons, the time between hot-mix asphalt (HMA) production and paving is extended to some hours. This can be reflected in several problems such as mix cooling and temperature segregation, but also in an extremely [...] Read more.

In road construction, it can happen that, for different reasons, the time between hot-mix asphalt (HMA) production and paving is extended to some hours. This can be reflected in several problems such as mix cooling and temperature segregation, but also in an extremely severe bitumen ageing due to its prolonged exposure to high temperatures. This paper deals with the investigation of these phenomena both in the laboratory and on site. In particular, the first part of the research aimed at observing the influence of the conditioning time, when the loose HMA is kept in the oven at a high temperature, on the mix properties. The second part focused on the ageing/cooling that happens on site during HMA hauling, as a function of time and type of truck. Temperatures were monitored using a thermal camera and different probes, and gyratory compactor specimens were produced by sampling some HMA from the trucks every 1 h for 3 h. The results showed that HMA stiffness rises if the time when the loose mix stays in the laboratory oven before compaction increases. However, on site, the HMA volumetric and mechanical properties do not change with hauling time up to 3 h, probably because the external material in the truck bed protects the HMA core from the access of oxygen, hindering bitumen oxidation and loss of volatiles. The temperature monitoring highlighted that temperature segregation, after 3 h hauling, can be higher than 30 °C but it can be reduced using insulated truck beds. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Pavement Engineering and Road Materials)

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16 pages, 3497 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluation of Gas Emissions, Energy Consumption and Production Costs of Warm Mix Asphalt (WMA) Involving Natural Zeolite and Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement (RAP)

by Alejandra T. Calabi-Floody, Gonzalo A. Valdés-Vidal, Elsa Sanchez-Alonso and Luis A. Mardones-Parra

Sustainability 2020, 12(16), 6410; https://doi.org/10.3390/su12166410 - 10 Aug 2020

Cited by 26 | Viewed by 3838

Abstract

Asphalt mixture is the most widely used material in road construction, and the industry is developing more sustainable technologies. Warm mix asphalt (WMA) is a promising alternative as it saves energy, reduces fuel consumption and generates fewer gas and fume emissions, while maintaining [...] Read more.

Asphalt mixture is the most widely used material in road construction, and the industry is developing more sustainable technologies. Warm mix asphalt (WMA) is a promising alternative as it saves energy, reduces fuel consumption and generates fewer gas and fume emissions, while maintaining a similar performance to hot mix asphalt (HMA). This paper presents an evaluation of the gas emissions at laboratory scale, as well as the energy consumption and production costs, of five types of WMA with the addition of natural zeolite. The control mixture was a HMA manufactured at 155 °C. The mixtures evaluated were two WMA manufactured at 135 °C with 0.3% and 0.6% natural zeolite, and three WMA with partial replacement of raw materials by 10%, 20% and 30% of reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP); these mixtures, called WMA–RAP, were manufactured at 125 °C, 135 °C and 145 °C, respectively. The results indicated that all the mixtures evaluated reduced CO and CO₂ emissions by 2–6% and 17–37%, respectively. The energy consumption presented a 13% decrease. In the current situation, the production costs for WMA with 0.3 and 0.6% natural zeolite are slightly higher than the control mixture, because the saving achieved in fuel consumption is lower than the current cost of the additive. On the other hand, WMA manufactured with the addition of natural zeolite and RAP could produce cost savings of up to 25%, depending on the amounts of RAP and natural zeolite used. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Pavement Engineering and Road Materials)

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21 pages, 9989 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Shear-Torque Fatigue Performance of Geogrid-Reinforced Asphalt Interlayers

by Davide Ragni, Francesco Canestrari, Fatima Allou, Christophe Petit and Anne Millien

Sustainability 2020, 12(11), 4381; https://doi.org/10.3390/su12114381 - 27 May 2020

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 4171

Abstract

Interlayer reinforcement systems represent a valid solution to improve performance and extend the service life of asphalt pavements, reducing maintenance costs. The main issue is that the presence of reinforcement may hinder the full transmission of stresses between asphalt layers, reducing the overall [...] Read more.

Interlayer reinforcement systems represent a valid solution to improve performance and extend the service life of asphalt pavements, reducing maintenance costs. The main issue is that the presence of reinforcement may hinder the full transmission of stresses between asphalt layers, reducing the overall pavement bearing capacity. This study aimed at evaluating the mechanical behavior of geogrid-reinforced asphalt interlayers under cyclic shear loading. To this purpose, a trial section, characterized by three types of interface (reinforced with carbon fiber grid, reinforced with glass fiber grid and unreinforced), was built. Cores were taken from the trial section to carry out shear-torque fatigue tests. Static Leutner shear tests were also performed on cored specimens having the same interface configuration. From data gathered in the present study, shear-torque fatigue tests have proved to be a powerful tool for investigating reinforced specimens. Results clearly ranked the investigated materials, showing that the glass fiber grid has the lowest shear fatigue performance in comparison with the other two interfaces at 20 °C. However, the shear fatigue resistance of glass fiber grid increases significantly at 10 °C. Finally, an interesting correlation was found between cyclic and static shear test results that should be better investigated in future studies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Pavement Engineering and Road Materials)

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13 pages, 3331 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Physical and Mechanical Characterization of Sustainable and Innovative Porous Concrete for Urban Pavements Containing Metakaolin

by Eduardo-Javier Elizondo-Martinez, Piergiorgio Tataranni, Jorge Rodriguez-Hernandez and Daniel Castro-Fresno

Sustainability 2020, 12(10), 4243; https://doi.org/10.3390/su12104243 - 21 May 2020

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 3519

Abstract

Alternative materials to replace cement in pavements have recently been widely studied with the purpose of decreasing the environmental impacts that the construction industry generates. In this context, the implementation of sustainable urban drainage systems has grown, especially with porous pavements, with the [...] Read more.

Alternative materials to replace cement in pavements have recently been widely studied with the purpose of decreasing the environmental impacts that the construction industry generates. In this context, the implementation of sustainable urban drainage systems has grown, especially with porous pavements, with the intention to reduce water and environmental impacts. In the present investigation, the addition of alternative materials to minimize the use of cement in porous concrete pavements is evaluated. Starting from a partial substitution of Portland cement with metakaolin, experimental geopolymer concretes were produced with metakaolin and waste basalt powder according to several dosages. Two sets of mixtures were analyzed to evaluate the Porous Concrete Design (PCD) methodology for porous concrete mixtures with alternative materials. A deep analysis was proposed for the evaluation of the mechanical and volumetric properties of the mixtures. Results demonstrated that replacing 5% of cement with metakaolin can increase both permeability and indirect tensile strength. Geopolymer mixtures can achieve permeability significantly higher than the traditional porous concrete, but this decreases their indirect tensile strength. However, considering the promising results, an adjustment in the mix design of the geopolymer mixtures could increase their mechanical properties without negatively affecting the porosity, making these materials a suitable alternative to traditional porous cement concrete, and a solution to be used in urban pavements. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Pavement Engineering and Road Materials)

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Review

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24 pages, 91821 KiB

Open AccessReview

African Case Studies: Developing Pavement Temperature Maps for Performance-Graded Asphalt Bitumen Selection

by Refiloe Mokoena, Georges Mturi, Johan Maritz, Mohau Mateyisi and Peter Klein

Sustainability 2022, 14(3), 1048; https://doi.org/10.3390/su14031048 - 18 Jan 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3693

Abstract

The reliable performance of roads is crucial for service delivery, and it is a catalyst for domestic and cross-border spatial development. Paved national roads are expected to carry higher traffic volumes over time as a result of urbanization and to support the economic [...] Read more.

The reliable performance of roads is crucial for service delivery, and it is a catalyst for domestic and cross-border spatial development. Paved national roads are expected to carry higher traffic volumes over time as a result of urbanization and to support the economic development in the continent. Increased traffic levels combined with expected increases in air temperatures as a result of global warming highlight the need to appropriately select bituminous road materials for a reliable performance of asphalt roads. The objective of the paper is to present African case studies on the development of temperature maps necessary for performance-graded bitumen selection for road design and construction. A consistent approach, that caters for the variability of geographical, environmental and climatic conditions, does not currently exist within the continent. Therefore, this paper discusses a series of critical components in the development of temperature maps for performance-graded bitumen including (i) pavement temperature models and climatic zones in Africa; (ii) the effect of urban heat islands on pavement temperature; (iii) sources of weather data and (iv) the mapping procedure to produce temperature maps. Characterizing the thermal properties of the pavement was found to be an important factor for reliably calculating expected road temperatures as well as the consideration of the ambient climate for a given location. During this study, the urban heat island effect was found to have little influence on the maximum pavement temperatures but a significant effect on the minimum pavement temperatures. Some areas of the urban district assessed in this investigation were found to increase by two performance grades according to the minimum temperature criteria. The recent observed weather data from weather stations are the most accurate means of measurement of the ambient environmental conditions necessary for performance-based specifications, but they are not always easily accessible, and therefore other sources of data, such as satellite data, may need to be used instead. With the expected temperature increases expected as a result of climate change, the use of Global Climate Models also opens new avenues for performance-based material selection in the African continent for expected climates as an alternative to traditional approaches based on historically observed weather. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Pavement Engineering and Road Materials)

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16 pages, 319 KiB

Open AccessReview

A Review of the Utilization of Coal Bottom Ash (CBA) in the Construction Industry

by Syakirah Afiza Mohammed, Suhana Koting, Herda Yati Binti Katman, Ali Mohammed Babalghaith, Muhamad Fazly Abdul Patah, Mohd Rasdan Ibrahim and Mohamed Rehan Karim

Sustainability 2021, 13(14), 8031; https://doi.org/10.3390/su13148031 - 19 Jul 2021

Cited by 34 | Viewed by 7207

Abstract

One effective method to minimize the increasing cost in the construction industry is by using coal bottom ash waste as a substitute material. The high volume of coal bottom ash waste generated each year and the improper disposal methods have raised a grave [...] Read more.

One effective method to minimize the increasing cost in the construction industry is by using coal bottom ash waste as a substitute material. The high volume of coal bottom ash waste generated each year and the improper disposal methods have raised a grave pollution concern because of the harmful impact of the waste on the environment and human health. Recycling coal bottom ash is an effective way to reduce the problems associated with its disposal. This paper reviews the current physical and chemical and utilization of coal bottom ash as a substitute material in the construction industry. The main objective of this review is to highlight the potential of recycling bottom ash in the field of civil construction. This review encourages and promotes effective recycling of coal bottom ash and identifies the vast range of coal bottom ash applications in the construction industry. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Pavement Engineering and Road Materials)

35 pages, 7514 KiB

Open AccessReview

A Review on Bitumen Aging and Rejuvenation Chemistry: Processes, Materials and Analyses

by Emiliano Prosperi and Edoardo Bocci

Sustainability 2021, 13(12), 6523; https://doi.org/10.3390/su13126523 - 8 Jun 2021

Cited by 56 | Viewed by 6762

Abstract

During the last decades, extensive research has been carried out on using reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP) material in the production of hot recycled mix asphalt. Unfortunately, the aged, stiff, and brittle binder in the RAP typically increases the mixture stiffness and can therefore [...] Read more.

During the last decades, extensive research has been carried out on using reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP) material in the production of hot recycled mix asphalt. Unfortunately, the aged, stiff, and brittle binder in the RAP typically increases the mixture stiffness and can therefore cause fatigue and low-temperature damages. In the scientific literature, there are many studies concerning the aging and rejuvenation of bitumen, but there is a lack of up-to-date reviews that bring them together, especially those facing the phenomena from a chemical point of view. In this paper, a recap of the chemical aspects of virgin, aged, and rejuvenated bitumen is proposed in order to provide a useful summary of the state of the art, with the aim of both encouraging the use of an increasing quantity of RAP in hot mix asphalt and trying to give indications for further research. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Pavement Engineering and Road Materials)

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13 pages, 960 KiB

Open AccessReview

Behavior Evaluation of Bituminous Mixtures Reinforced with Nano-Sized Additives: A Review

by Raffaella Fusco, Laura Moretti, Nicola Fiore and Antonio D’Andrea

Sustainability 2020, 12(19), 8044; https://doi.org/10.3390/su12198044 - 29 Sep 2020

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 2613

Abstract

This article presents a comparative review of the most commonly used nano-additives for bituminous mixtures: nanoclays (NC), nanosilicates, carbon nanotubes (CNTs), graphene nanoplatelets (GNPs), nano-calcium oxide (CaO), and nano-titanium dioxide (TiO₂). In this study, the mechanical behavior of the obtained additive [...] Read more.

This article presents a comparative review of the most commonly used nano-additives for bituminous mixtures: nanoclays (NC), nanosilicates, carbon nanotubes (CNTs), graphene nanoplatelets (GNPs), nano-calcium oxide (CaO), and nano-titanium dioxide (TiO₂). In this study, the mechanical behavior of the obtained additive mixture is evaluated. According to the revised literature, the results strongly depend on type, concentration, and dispersal of used nano-additive. In fact, it has been seen that simple shear mixing followed by sonication homogenizes the distribution of the nanoparticles within the bituminous matrix and favors the bonds’ formation. The viscosity of the mixture of bitumen with nanoparticles improves with the increase of the percentage of additive added: it indicates a potential improvement to permanent deformation and rutting. Another benefit is an increased resistance of the binder to aging. Furthermore, it has been shown that the nanoparticles are able to prolong the service life of a bituminous mixture by means of various interdependent chemical–physical mechanisms that can influence the resistance to fatigue failure or the ability to self-heal. However, the effectiveness of these improvements depends on the particle type, added quantity and mixing technique, and the tests carried out. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Pavement Engineering and Road Materials)

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