Toxins

Editorial

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3 pages, 215 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Phytopathogenic Fungi and Toxicity

by Maria Michela Salvatore and Anna Andolfi

Toxins 2021, 13(10), 689; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins13100689 - 28 Sep 2021

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 3609

Abstract

Phytopathogen fungi are responsible for serious plant diseases which might negatively affect crop productivity [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Phytopathogenic Fungi and Toxicity)

Research

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25 pages, 2073 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Seasonal Variability of the Airborne Eukaryotic Community Structure at a Coastal Site of the Central Mediterranean

by Mattia Fragola, Maria Rita Perrone, Pietro Alifano, Adelfia Talà and Salvatore Romano

Toxins 2021, 13(8), 518; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins13080518 - 24 Jul 2021

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2937

Abstract

The atmosphere represents an underexplored temporary habitat for airborne microbial communities such as eukaryotes, whose taxonomic structure changes across different locations and/or regions as a function of both survival conditions and sources. A preliminary dataset on the seasonal dependence of the airborne eukaryotic [...] Read more.

The atmosphere represents an underexplored temporary habitat for airborne microbial communities such as eukaryotes, whose taxonomic structure changes across different locations and/or regions as a function of both survival conditions and sources. A preliminary dataset on the seasonal dependence of the airborne eukaryotic community biodiversity, detected in PM10 samples collected from July 2018 to June 2019 at a coastal site representative of the Central Mediterranean, is provided in this study. Viridiplantae and Fungi were the most abundant eukaryotic kingdoms. Streptophyta was the prevailing Viridiplantae phylum, whilst Ascomycota and Basidiomycota were the prevailing Fungi phyla. Brassica and Panicum were the most abundant Streptophyta genera in winter and summer, respectively, whereas Olea was the most abundant genus in spring and autumn. With regards to Fungi, Botrytis and Colletotrichum were the most abundant Ascomycota genera, reaching the highest abundance in spring and summer, respectively, while Cryptococcus and Ustilago were the most abundant Basidiomycota genera, and reached the highest abundance in winter and spring, respectively. The genus community structure in the PM10 samples varied day-by-day, and mainly along with the seasons. The impact of long-range transported air masses on the same structure was also proven. Nevertheless, rather few genera were significantly correlated with meteorological parameters and PM10 mass concentrations. The PCoA plots and non-parametric Spearman’s rank-order correlation coefficients showed that the strongest correlations generally occurred between parameters reaching high abundances/values in the same season or PM10 sample. Moreover, the screening of potential pathogenic fungi allowed us to detect seven potential pathogenic genera in our PM10 samples. We also found that, with the exception of Panicum and Physcomitrella, all of the most abundant and pervasive identified Streptophyta genera could serve as potential sources of aeroallergens in the studied area. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Phytopathogenic Fungi and Toxicity)

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17 pages, 2334 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Inactivation by Curcumin-Mediated Photosensitization of Botrytis cinerea Spores Isolated from Strawberry Fruits

by Li Huang, Ken W. L. Yong, W. Chrishanthi Fernando, Matheus Carpinelli de Jesus, James J. De Voss, Yasmina Sultanbawa and Mary T. Fletcher

Toxins 2021, 13(3), 196; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins13030196 - 9 Mar 2021

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 3236

Abstract

Photosensitization is a novel environmentally friendly technology with promising applications in the food industry to extend food shelf life. In this study, the natural food dye curcumin, when combined with visible light (430 nm), was shown to be an effective photosensitizer against the [...] Read more.

Photosensitization is a novel environmentally friendly technology with promising applications in the food industry to extend food shelf life. In this study, the natural food dye curcumin, when combined with visible light (430 nm), was shown to be an effective photosensitizer against the common phytopathogenic fungi Botrytis cinerea (the cause of grey mould). Production of the associated phytotoxic metabolites botrydial and dihydrobotrydial was measured by our newly developed and validated HRAM UPLC-MS/MS method, and was also shown to be reduced by this treatment. With a light dose of 120 J/cm², the reduction in spore viability was directly proportional to curcumin concentrations, and the overall concentration of both botrydial and dihydrobotrydial also decreased with increasing curcumin concentration above 200 µM. With curcumin concentrations above 600 µM, the percentage reduction in fungal spores was close to 100%. When the dye concentration was increased to 800 µM, the spores were completely inactive and neither botrydial nor dihydrobotrydial could be detected. These results suggest that curcumin-mediated photosensitization is a potentially effective method to control B. cinerea spoilage, and also to reduce the formation of these phytotoxic botryane secondary metabolites. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Phytopathogenic Fungi and Toxicity)

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13 pages, 344 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Phenotypic Differentiation of Two Morphologically Similar Aflatoxin-Producing Fungi from West Africa

by Pummi Singh, Hillary L. Mehl, Marc J. Orbach, Kenneth A. Callicott and Peter J. Cotty

Toxins 2020, 12(10), 656; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins12100656 - 13 Oct 2020

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2809

Abstract

Aflatoxins (AF) are hepatocarcinogenic metabolites produced by several Aspergillus species. Crop infection by these species results in aflatoxin contamination of cereals, nuts, and spices. Etiology of aflatoxin contamination is complicated by mixed infections of multiple species with similar morphology and aflatoxin profiles. The [...] Read more.

Aflatoxins (AF) are hepatocarcinogenic metabolites produced by several Aspergillus species. Crop infection by these species results in aflatoxin contamination of cereals, nuts, and spices. Etiology of aflatoxin contamination is complicated by mixed infections of multiple species with similar morphology and aflatoxin profiles. The current study investigates variation in aflatoxin production between two morphologically similar species that co-exist in West Africa, A. aflatoxiformans and A. minisclerotigenes. Consistent distinctions in aflatoxin production during liquid fermentation were discovered between these species. The two species produced similar concentrations of AFB₁ in defined media with either urea or ammonium as the sole nitrogen source. However, production of both AFB₁ and AFG₁ were inhibited (p < 0.001) for A. aflatoxiformans in a yeast extract medium with sucrose. Although production of AFG₁ by both species was similar in urea, A. minisclerotigenes produced greater concentrations of AFG₁ in ammonium (p = 0.039). Based on these differences, a reliable and convenient assay for differentiating the two species was designed. This assay will be useful for identifying specific etiologic agents of aflatoxin contamination episodes in West Africa and other regions where the two species are sympatric, especially when phylogenetic analyses based on multiple gene segments are not practical. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Phytopathogenic Fungi and Toxicity)

16 pages, 3162 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Diversity and Toxigenicity of Fungi that Cause Pineapple Fruitlet Core Rot

by Bastien Barral, Marc Chillet, Anna Doizy, Maeva Grassi, Laetitia Ragot, Mathieu Léchaudel, Noel Durand, Lindy Joy Rose, Altus Viljoen and Sabine Schorr-Galindo

Toxins 2020, 12(5), 339; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins12050339 - 21 May 2020

Cited by 23 | Viewed by 5971

Abstract

The identity of the fungi responsible for fruitlet core rot (FCR) disease in pineapple has been the subject of investigation for some time. This study describes the diversity and toxigenic potential of fungal species causing FCR in La Reunion, an island in the [...] Read more.

The identity of the fungi responsible for fruitlet core rot (FCR) disease in pineapple has been the subject of investigation for some time. This study describes the diversity and toxigenic potential of fungal species causing FCR in La Reunion, an island in the Indian Ocean. One-hundred-and-fifty fungal isolates were obtained from infected and healthy fruitlets on Reunion Island and exclusively correspond to two genera of fungi: Fusarium and Talaromyces. The genus Fusarium made up 79% of the isolates, including 108 F. ananatum, 10 F. oxysporum, and one F. proliferatum. The genus Talaromyces accounted for 21% of the isolated fungi, which were all Talaromyces stollii. As the isolated fungal strains are potentially mycotoxigenic, identification and quantification of mycotoxins were carried out on naturally or artificially infected diseased fruits and under in vitro cultures of potential toxigenic isolates. Fumonisins B₁ and B₂ (FB₁-FB₂) and beauvericin (BEA) were found in infected fruitlets of pineapple and in the culture media of Fusarium species. Regarding the induction of mycotoxin in vitro, F. proliferatum produced 182 mg kg⁻¹ of FB₁ and F. oxysporum produced 192 mg kg⁻¹ of BEA. These results provide a better understanding of the causal agents of FCR and their potential risk to pineapple consumers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Phytopathogenic Fungi and Toxicity)

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19 pages, 5854 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Expansion and Conservation of Biosynthetic Gene Clusters in Pathogenic Pyrenophora spp.

by Paula M. Moolhuijzen, Mariano Jordi Muria-Gonzalez, Robert Syme, Catherine Rawlinson, Pao Theen See, Caroline S. Moffat and Simon R. Ellwood

Toxins 2020, 12(4), 242; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins12040242 - 9 Apr 2020

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 4605

Abstract

Pyrenophora is a fungal genus responsible for a number of major cereal diseases. Although fungi produce many specialised or secondary metabolites for defence and interacting with the surrounding environment, the repertoire of specialised metabolites (SM) within Pyrenophora pathogenic species remains mostly uncharted. In [...] Read more.

Pyrenophora is a fungal genus responsible for a number of major cereal diseases. Although fungi produce many specialised or secondary metabolites for defence and interacting with the surrounding environment, the repertoire of specialised metabolites (SM) within Pyrenophora pathogenic species remains mostly uncharted. In this study, an in-depth comparative analysis of the P. teres f. teres, P teres f. maculata and P. tritici-repentis potential to produce SMs, based on in silico predicted biosynthetic gene clusters (BGCs), was conducted using genome assemblies from PacBio DNA reads. Conservation of BGCs between the Pyrenophora species included type I polyketide synthases, terpene synthases and the first reporting of a type III polyketide synthase in P teres f. maculata. P. teres isolates exhibited substantial expansion of non-ribosomal peptide synthases relative to P. tritici-repentis, hallmarked by the presence of tailoring cis-acting nitrogen methyltransferase domains. P. teres isolates also possessed unique non-ribosomal peptide synthase (NRPS)-indole and indole BGCs, while a P. tritici-repentis phytotoxin BGC for triticone production was absent in P. teres. These differences highlight diversification between the pathogens that reflects their different evolutionary histories, host adaption and lifestyles. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Phytopathogenic Fungi and Toxicity)

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17 pages, 2183 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Toxicity of Recombinant Necrosis and Ethylene-Inducing Proteins (NLPs) from Neofusicoccum parvum

by Forough Nazar Pour, Rebeca Cobos, Juan José Rubio Coque, João Serôdio, Artur Alves, Carina Félix, Vanessa Ferreira, Ana Cristina Esteves and Ana Sofia Duarte

Toxins 2020, 12(4), 235; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins12040235 - 7 Apr 2020

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 3919

Abstract

Neofusicoccum parvum is a fungal pathogen associated with a wide range of plant hosts. Despite being widely studied, the molecular mechanism of infection of N. parvum is still far from being understood. Analysis of N. parvum genome lead to the identification of six [...] Read more.

Neofusicoccum parvum is a fungal pathogen associated with a wide range of plant hosts. Despite being widely studied, the molecular mechanism of infection of N. parvum is still far from being understood. Analysis of N. parvum genome lead to the identification of six putative genes encoding necrosis and ethylene-inducing proteins (NLPs). The sequence of NLPs genes (NprvNep 1-6) were analyzed and four of the six NLP genes were successfully cloned, expressed in E. coli and purified by affinity chromatography. Pure recombinant proteins were characterized according to their phytotoxic and cytotoxic effects to tomato leaves and to mammalian Vero cells, respectively. These assays revealed that all NprvNeps tested are cytotoxic to Vero cells and also induce cell death in tomato leaves. NprvNep2 was the most toxic to Vero cells, followed by NprvNep1 and 3. NprvNep4 induced weaker, but, nevertheless, still significant toxic effects to Vero cells. A similar trend of toxicity was observed in tomato leaves: the most toxic was NprvNep 2 and the least toxic NprvNep 4. This study describes for the first time an overview of the NLP gene family of N. parvum and provides additional insights into its pathogenicity mechanism. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Phytopathogenic Fungi and Toxicity)

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Review

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22 pages, 2478 KiB

Open AccessReview

Fusarium Cyclodepsipeptide Mycotoxins: Chemistry, Biosynthesis, and Occurrence

by Monika Urbaniak, Agnieszka Waśkiewicz and Łukasz Stępień

Toxins 2020, 12(12), 765; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins12120765 - 3 Dec 2020

Cited by 33 | Viewed by 3662

Abstract

Most of the fungi from the Fusarium genus are pathogenic to cereals, vegetables, and fruits and the products of their secondary metabolism mycotoxins may accumulate in foods and feeds. Non-ribosomal cyclodepsipeptides are one of the main mycotoxin groups and include beauvericins (BEAs), enniatins [...] Read more.

Most of the fungi from the Fusarium genus are pathogenic to cereals, vegetables, and fruits and the products of their secondary metabolism mycotoxins may accumulate in foods and feeds. Non-ribosomal cyclodepsipeptides are one of the main mycotoxin groups and include beauvericins (BEAs), enniatins (ENNs), and beauvenniatins (BEAEs). When ingested, even small amounts of these metabolites significantly affect human and animal health. On the other hand, in view of their antimicrobial activities and cytotoxicity, they may be used as components in drug discovery and processing and are considered as suitable candidates for anti-cancer drugs. Therefore, it is crucial to expand the existing knowledge about cyclodepsipeptides and to search for new analogues of these compounds. The present manuscript aimed to highlight the extensive variability of cyclodepsipeptides by describing chemistry, biosynthesis, and occurrence of BEAs, ENNs, and BEAEs in foods and feeds. Moreover, the co-occurrence of Fusarium species was compared to the amounts of toxins in crops, vegetables, and fruits from different regions of the world. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Phytopathogenic Fungi and Toxicity)

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33 pages, 2759 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Secondary Metabolites of Lasiodiplodia theobromae: Distribution, Chemical Diversity, Bioactivity, and Implications of Their Occurrence

by Maria Michela Salvatore, Artur Alves and Anna Andolfi

Toxins 2020, 12(7), 457; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins12070457 - 17 Jul 2020

Cited by 67 | Viewed by 6817

Abstract

Lasiodiplodia theobromae is a plant pathogenic fungus from the family Botryosphaeriaceae that is commonly found in tropical and subtropical regions. It has been associated with many hosts, causing diverse diseases and being responsible for serious damages on economically important crops. A diverse array [...] Read more.

Lasiodiplodia theobromae is a plant pathogenic fungus from the family Botryosphaeriaceae that is commonly found in tropical and subtropical regions. It has been associated with many hosts, causing diverse diseases and being responsible for serious damages on economically important crops. A diverse array of bioactive low molecular weight compounds has been described as being produced by L. theobromae cultures. In this review, the existing literature on secondary metabolites of L. theobromae, their bioactivity, and the implications of their occurrence are compiled. Moreover, the effects of abiotic factors (e.g., temperature, nutrient availability) on secondary metabolites production are highlighted, and possible avenues for future research are presented. Currently, a total of 134 chemically defined compounds belonging to the classes of secondary metabolites and fatty acids have been reported from over 30 L. theobromae isolates. Compounds reported include cyclohexenes and cyclohexenones, indoles, jasmonates, lactones, melleins, phenols, and others. Most of the existing bioactivity studies of L. theobromae metabolites have assessed their potential phytotoxic, cytotoxic, and antimicrobial activities. In fact, its host adaptability and its ability to cause diseases in plants as well as in humans may be related to the capacity to produce bioactive compounds directly involved in host–fungus interactions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Phytopathogenic Fungi and Toxicity)

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