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Porcine Viruses 2024

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A special issue of Viruses (ISSN 1999-4915). This special issue belongs to the section "Animal Viruses".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 January 2025) | Viewed by 11067

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Prof. Dr. Guoxin Li

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Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai 200241, China
Interests: development of vaccines against animal viruses
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Dr. Lingxue Yu

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Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai, China
Interests: viruses; immunology; vaccines
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Prof. Dr. Jin Cui

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College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, China
Interests: porcine virus; immune evasion; pathogenesis; epidemiology; virus evolution; prevention and control；vaccine
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Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Swine virus disease is a kind of disease that inflicts great harm on the pig industry. This disease is not only harmful to pigs, but also highly contagious. Once a pig is infected, an entire farm or even an entire area is at risk. In recent years, various emerging and re-emerging disease pathogens have gradually broken through the existing immune defense line, through continuous recombination and evolution, resulting in the inefficiency or even ineffectiveness of current immune prevention and control measures, bringing huge threats and serious economic losses to the global pig industry. For example, African swine fever virus (ASFV), porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV), porcine epidemic diarrhea virus (PEDV), and porcine pseudorabies virus (PRV) constantly mutate under multiple selection pressures, such as body immunity and vaccine immunity. As the frequency of international trade increases, viruses spread faster and wider. Similar virus strains in different regions recombine with each other, making the recombinant mutant strains break through the existing immune prevention and control measures, increasing the difficulty of disease prevention and control. Therefore, this Special Issue will focus on the epidemiological study of swine viruses, the pathogenesis and immune escape mechanisms of the viruses, and the development of new vaccines in addition to other related disease prevention and control issues. We welcome you to provide relevant research articles, comments, and original research.

Prof. Dr. Guoxin Li
Dr. Lingxue Yu
Prof. Dr. Jin Cui
Guest Editors

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Keywords

epidemiology
pathogenesis
immune evasion
virus evolution
vaccine

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Porcine Viruses 2023 in Viruses (15 articles)
Porcine Viruses 2025 in Viruses

Published Papers (11 papers)

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28 pages, 4914 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Multiple Co-Infecting Caliciviruses in Oral Fluid and Enteric Samples of Swine Detected by a Novel RT-qPCR Assay and a 3′RACE-PCR-NGS Method

by Zoltán László, Péter Pankovics, Péter Urbán, Róbert Herczeg, Gyula Balka, Barbara Igriczi, Attila Cságola, Mihály Albert, Fruzsina Tóth, Gábor Reuter and Ákos Boros

Viruses 2025, 17(2), 193; https://doi.org/10.3390/v17020193 - 30 Jan 2025

Viewed by 261

Abstract

Caliciviruses including noro- and sapoviruses of family Caliciviridae are important enteric human and swine pathogens, while others, like valoviruses, are less known. In this study, we developed a detection and typing pipeline for the most prevalent swine enteric caliciviruses—sapovirus GIII (Sw-SaV), norovirus GII (Sw-NoV), and valovirus GI (Sw-VaV). The pipeline integrates triplex RT-qPCR, 3′RACE semi-nested PCR, and next-generation sequencing (NovaSeq, Illumina) techniques. A small-scale epidemiological investigation was conducted on archived enteric and, for the first time, on oral fluid/saliva samples of diarrheic and asymptomatic swine of varying ages from Hungary and Slovakia. In enteric samples, Sw-SaV was the most prevalent, detected in 26.26% of samples, primarily in diarrheic pigs with low Cq values, followed by Sw-NoV (2.53%) in nursery pigs. In oral fluid samples, Sw-NoV predominated (7.46%), followed by Sw-SaV (4.39%). Sw-VaVs were sporadically found in both sample types. A natural, asymptomatic Sw-SaV outbreak was retrospectively detected where the transient shedding of the virus was <2 weeks. Complete capsid sequences (n = 59; 43 Sw-SaV, 13 Sw-NoV, and 3 Sw-VaV) including multiple (up to five) co-infecting variants were identified. Sw-SaV sequences belong to seven genotypes, while Sw-NoV and Sw-VaV strains clustered into distinct sub-clades, highlighting the complex diversity of these enteric caliciviruses in swine. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Porcine Viruses 2024)

14 pages, 2317 KiB

Open AccessArticle

DDX21 Promotes PCV3 Replication by Binding to Cap Protein and Inhibiting Interferon Responses

by Haoyu Sun, Qianhong Dai, Beiyi Zhou, Xiaoyuan Lan, Yonghui Qiu, Qianqian Zhang, Dedong Wang, Yongqiu Cui, Jinshuo Guo, Lei Hou, Jue Liu and Jianwei Zhou

Viruses 2025, 17(2), 166; https://doi.org/10.3390/v17020166 - 24 Jan 2025

Viewed by 364

Abstract

Porcine circovirus type 3 (PCV3) is an emerging pathogen that causes porcine dermatitis, nephropathy syndrome-like symptoms, multisystemic inflammation, and reproductive failure. The PCV3 capsid (Cap) protein interacts with DDX21, which functions mainly through controlling interferon (IFN)-β levels. However, how the interaction between DDX21 and PCV3 Cap regulates viral replication remains unknown. In the present study, upon shRNA-mediated DDX21 depletion in PK-15 cells, we observed impaired PCV3 proliferation via a lentivirus-delivered system, as indicated by reduced replicase (Rep) protein levels and viral titers. Furthermore, DDX21 negatively regulated IFN-β and interferon-stimulated gene (ISG) levels, promoting PCV3 replication. Mechanistically, PCV3 Cap co-localized and interacted with DDX21, and the nuclear localization signal (NLS) of PCV3 Cap and ⁷⁶³GSRSNRFQNK⁷⁷² at the C-terminal domain (CTD) of DDX21 were indispensable to the interaction. Moreover, PCV3 infection prevented the repression of DDX21 to facilitate its pro-viral activity. Taken together, these results show that DDX21 promotes PCV3 replication by binding to the PCV3 Cap protein and prohibiting IFN-β response, which provides important insight on the prevention and control of PCV3 infection. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Porcine Viruses 2024)

20 pages, 2381 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Reliable Polymerase Chain Reaction Methods for Screening for Porcine Endogenous Retroviruses-C (PERV-C) in Pigs

by Hina Jhelum, Dusan Kunec, Vasileios Papatsiros, Benedikt B. Kaufer and Joachim Denner

Viruses 2025, 17(2), 164; https://doi.org/10.3390/v17020164 - 24 Jan 2025

Viewed by 440

Abstract

Porcine endogenous retrovirus C (PERV-C) is a gammaretrovirus present in the genome of many, but not all, pigs. It is an ecotropic virus, able to infect only pig cells. In contrast, PERV-A and PERV-B, which are present in all pigs, can infect cells of multiple host species, including humans, thereby posing a risk for xenotransplantation when pigs are used as donor animals. Notably, PERV-C can recombine with PERV-A to produce PERV-A/C recombinants that can infect human cells and replicate to higher titers compared to the paternal PERV-A. The objective of this study is to evaluate the reliability of both existing and newly developed polymerase chain reactions (PCR) methods for detecting PERV-C, with the aim of selecting PERV-C-free pigs to be used for xenotransplantation. To detect PERV-C by PCR, specific primers targeting the region of the envelope protein gene, which differs from that of PERV-A and PERV-B due to its unique receptor binding site, must be employed. In this study, new PCR assays were developed to detect PERV-C and a total of ten PCR assays and one real-time PCR assay were evaluated for their reliability in detecting PERV-C. These assays were used to screen indigenous Greek black pigs, Auckland Island pigs, and German slaughterhouse pigs. Two of the PCR assays consistently yielded reliable results, whereas the other PCRs and the real-time PCR gave false positive results. Using the reliable assays, it was shown that one out of four indigenous Greek black pigs (using the same method in a previous publication 11 of 21 pigs were found PERV-C-negative), one out of ten German slaughterhouse pigs, the pig kidney cell line PK15, and all the Auckland Island pigs were PERV-C-negative. The reliable PCR assays will enable the screening of PERV-C-negative donor pigs to be used in xenotransplantation. Most importantly, all the Auckland Island pigs that were genetically modified in Germany for use in clinical trials were PERV-C-negative. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Porcine Viruses 2024)

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11 pages, 4265 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Development of a Synthetic VP1 Protein Peptide-Based ELISA to Detect Antibodies Against Porcine Bocavirus Group 3

by Chao Gong, Hui He, Yuguang Fu, Baoyu Li, Bin Yang, Jianlong Li, Xiaodong He, Juncheng Han, Yi Zhang, Guangliang Liu and Qingyong Guo

Viruses 2024, 16(12), 1946; https://doi.org/10.3390/v16121946 - 19 Dec 2024

Viewed by 618

Abstract

Porcine bocavirus (PBoV), classified within the genus Bocaparvovirus, has been reported worldwide. PBoV has been divided into group 1, group 2, and group 3. PBoV group 3 (G3) viruses are the most prevalent in China. Currently, effective serological methods for the detection of antibodies against PBoV G3 are limited. In this study, we developed an indirect ELISA using a synthetic VP1 peptide designed on the basis of the conserved region of the PBoV VP1 protein as a coating antigen. Through matrix titration, the optimal coating concentration of the VP1 peptide (0.5 μg/mL), serum dilution (1:200), and working concentration of the secondary antibody (1:50,000) were determined. The cutoff value of this developed ELISA was set as 0.4239. Further investigations revealed that this developed ELISA had no cross-reactivity with positive serum antibodies against FMDV-O, FMDV-A, PRV, ASFV, SF, PCV2, PEDV, and TGEV. The detection limit of the method was a 1:1600 dilution of standard positive serum against PBoV G3. The coefficients of variation for both the intra- and interassay data were lower than 10%. A total of 1373 serum samples collected from 12 provinces in China between 2022 and 2023 were subjected to indirect ELISA. The results showed that 47.56% of the samples were PBoV G3 positive. These results reveal that peptide-based ELISA is a reliable and cost-effective method for detecting PBoV G3 antibodies. It also facilitates the investigation of the prevalence and distribution of PBoV G3. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Porcine Viruses 2024)

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13 pages, 5044 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Development and Application of a Fully Automated Chemiluminescence Enzyme Immunoassay for the Detection of Antibodies Against Porcine Circovirus 3 Cap

by Lei Wang, Duan Li, Daoping Zeng, Xiaomin Wang, Yanlin Liu, Guoliang Peng, Zheng Xu and Changxu Song

Viruses 2024, 16(12), 1925; https://doi.org/10.3390/v16121925 - 17 Dec 2024

Viewed by 667

Abstract

Porcine circovirus 3 (PCV3) is a small non-enveloped circovirus associated with porcine dermatitis and nephropathy syndrome (PDNS). It has occurred worldwide and poses a serious threat to the pig industry. However, there is no commercially available vaccine. PCV3 capsid protein (Cap) is an ideal antigen candidate for serodiagnosis. Here, a novel fully automated chemiluminescence enzyme immunoassay (CLEIA) was developed to detect antibodies (Abs) to Cap in porcine serum. Recombinant PCV3 Cap, self-assembled into virus-like particles (VLPs), was produced using baculovirus and coupled to magnetic particles (Cap-MPs) as carriers. Combined with an alkaline phosphatase (AP)–adamantane (AMPPD) system, Cap-Abs can be rapidly measured on a fully automated chemiluminescence analyzer. Under optimal conditions, a cut-off value of 31,508 was determined, with a diagnostic sensitivity of 96.8% and specificity of 97.3%. No cross-reactivity was observed with PCV1 and PCV2 and other common porcine pathogens, and both intra-assay and inter-assay coefficients were less than 5% and 10%, respectively. Prepared Cap-MPs can be stored at 4 °C for more than 6 months. Importantly, this CLEIA had a good agreement of 95.19% with the commercially available kit, demonstrating excellent analytical sensitivity and significantly reduced operating time and labor. A serological survey was then conducted, and showed that PCV3 continues to spread widely in South China. In conclusion, our CLEIA provides time and labor-saving, and a reliable tool for PCV3 epidemiological surveillance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Porcine Viruses 2024)

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13 pages, 620 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Molecular Positivity of Porcine Circovirus Type 2 Associated with Production Practices on Farms in Jalisco, Mexico

by Alberto Jorge Galindo-Barboza, José Francisco Rivera-Benítez, Jazmín De la Luz-Armendáriz, José Ivan Sánchez-Betancourt, Jesús Hernández, Suzel Guadalupe Sauceda-Cerecer and Jaime Enrique De Alba-Campos

Viruses 2024, 16(10), 1633; https://doi.org/10.3390/v16101633 - 19 Oct 2024

Viewed by 968

Abstract

The modernization of pig production has led to increasingly larger populations of pigs. This dynamic allows for accelerated production and ensures a steady pork supply but also facilitates the spread of infections. PCV2 is a ubiquitous virus and can cause PCV2-associated diseases, depending on production practices. This study aimed to evaluate the conditions of pig production in the state of Jalisco, Mexico, and correlate them with PCV2. A total of 4207 serum samples from 80 farms were analyzed. Epidemiological data were collected and used to investigate factors associated with PCV2 detection. A relative frequency of approximately 30% was detected, primarily in grower pigs maintained on multisite farms. Several production practices, particularly biosecurity measures, were associated with PCV2 on the analyzed farms. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Porcine Viruses 2024)

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14 pages, 518 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Prevalence of Antibodies against Adeno-Associated Viruses (AAVs) in Göttingen Minipigs and Its Implications for Gene Therapy and Xenotransplantation

by Kirsten Rosenmay Jacobsen, Javier Mota, Michelle Salerno, Alexis Willis, Dennis Pitts and Joachim Denner

Viruses 2024, 16(10), 1613; https://doi.org/10.3390/v16101613 - 15 Oct 2024

Viewed by 1196

Abstract

Adeno-associated viruses (AAV) are widely used as delivery vectors in clinical trials for in vivo gene therapy due to their unique features. Göttingen minipigs are a well-established animal model for several diseases and can be used for the efficacy and safety testing of AAV-based gene therapy. Pre-existing antibodies against AAV may influence the results of testing and, therefore, the animals should be tested for the presence of antibodies against relevant AAV serotypes. The detection of AAVs in pigs may be also important for the virus safety of xenotransplantation. In this study, we screened Göttingen minipigs from Ellegaard Göttingen Minipigs A/S, Denmark, and Marshall BioResources, USA, for antibodies against AAV1, AAV2, AAV6, AAV9 serotypes. Of the 20 animals tested, 18 had no neutralizing antibodies for all AAVs tested, none had antibodies against AAV9, only one had antibodies against AAV6, and the titers of antibodies against AAV1 and AAV2 were less than 1:100, with two exceptions. For total binding IgG, more individuals showed positivity for all the tested serotypes but, in general, the levels were low or zero. Three animals had no antibodies at all against the AAVs tested. Therefore, Göttingen minipigs could be considered an attractive animal model for gene therapy studies. Since some animals were negative for all AAVs tested, these may be selected and used as donor animals for xenotransplantation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Porcine Viruses 2024)

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13 pages, 3274 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Distal Promoter of the B438L Gene of African Swine Fever Virus Is Responsible for the Transcription of the Alternatively Spliced B169L

by Hongwei Cao, Hao Deng, Yanjin Wang, Diqiu Liu, Lianfeng Li, Meilin Li, Dingkun Peng, Jingwen Dai, Jiaqi Li, Huaji Qiu and Su Li

Viruses 2024, 16(7), 1058; https://doi.org/10.3390/v16071058 - 30 Jun 2024

Viewed by 1552

Abstract

The B169L protein (pB169L) of African swine fever virus (ASFV) is a structural protein with an unidentified function during the virus replication. The sequences of the B169L gene and the downstream B438L gene are separated by short intergenic regions. However, the regulatory mode of the gene transcription remains unknown. Here, we identified two distinct promoter regions and two transcription start sites (TSSs) located upstream of the open reading frame (ORF) of B438L. Using the promoter reporter system, we demonstrated that the cis activity of the ORF proximal promoter exhibited significantly higher levels compared with that of the distal promoter located in the B169L gene. Furthermore, transfection with the plasmids with two different promoters for B438L could initiate the transcription and expression of the B438L gene in HEK293T cells, and the cis activity of the ORF proximal promoter also displayed higher activities compared with the distal promoter. Interestingly, the B438L distal promoter also initiated the transcription of the alternatively spliced B169L mRNA (B169L mRNA2) encoding a truncated pB169L (tpB169L) (amino acids 92–169), and the gene transcription efficiency was increased upon mutation of the initiation codon located upstream of the alternatively spliced B169L gene. Taken together, we demonstrated that the distal promoter of B438L gene initiates the transcription of both the B438L mRNA and B169L mRNA2. Comprehensive analysis of the transcriptional regulatory mode of the B438L gene is beneficial for the understanding of the association of B438L protein and pB169L and the construction of the gene-deleted ASFV. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Porcine Viruses 2024)

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19 pages, 12243 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Genetic Characterization and Pathogenicity of a Recombinant Porcine Reproductive and Respiratory Syndrome Virus Strain in China

by Yan Ouyang, Yingbing Du, Hejin Zhang, Jiahui Guo, Zheng Sun, Xiuxin Luo, Xiaowei Mei, Shaobo Xiao, Liurong Fang and Yanrong Zhou

Viruses 2024, 16(6), 993; https://doi.org/10.3390/v16060993 - 20 Jun 2024

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1467

Abstract

Since it was first reported in 2013, the NADC30-like PRRSV has been epidemic in China. Hubei Province is known as China’s key hog-exporting region. To understand the prevalence and genetic variation of PRRSV, herein, we detected and analyzed 317 lung tissue samples from pigs with respiratory disease in Hubei Province, and demonstrated that the NADC30-like strain was the second-most predominant strain during 2017–2018, following the highly pathogenic PRRSV (HP-PRRSV). Additionally, we isolated a new NADC30-like PRRSV strain, named CHN-HB-2018, which could be stably passaged in Marc-145 cells. Genetic characterization analysis showed that compared with the NADC30 strain, the CHN-HB-2018 strain had several amino acid variations in glycoprotein (GP) 3, GP5, and nonstructural protein 2 (NSP2). Moreover, the CHN-HB-2018 strain showed a unique 5-amino acid (aa) deletion in NSP2, which has not previously been reported. Gene recombination analysis identified the CHN-HB-2018 strain as a potentially recombinant PRRSV of the NADC30-like strain and HP-PRRSV. Animal experiments indicated that the CHN-HB-2018 strain has a mild pathogenicity, with no mortality and only mild fever observed in piglets. This study contributes to defining the evolutionary characteristics of PRRSV and its molecular epidemiology in Hubei Province, and provides a potential candidate strain for PRRSV vaccine development. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Porcine Viruses 2024)

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14 pages, 1670 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Porcine Circovirus Type 3 (PCV3) in Poland: Prevalence in Wild Boar Population in Connection with African Swine Fever (ASF)

by Maciej Piotr Frant, Natalia Mazur-Panasiuk, Anna Gal-Cisoń, Łukasz Bocian, Magdalena Łyjak and Anna Szczotka-Bochniarz

Viruses 2024, 16(5), 754; https://doi.org/10.3390/v16050754 - 10 May 2024

Viewed by 1367

Abstract

Human health is dependent on food safety and, therefore, on the health of farm animals. One of the most significant threats in regard to swine diseases is African swine fever (ASF). Infections caused by porcine circoviruses (PCVs) represent another important swine disease. Due to the ubiquitous nature of PCV2, it is not surprising that this virus has been detected in ASFV-affected pigs. However, recent data indicate that coinfection of PCV3 and ASFV also occurs. It is still unclear whether PCV infection plays a role in ASFV infection, and that subject requires further analysis. The aim of this study was to assess whether PCV3 and PCV4 are present in the wild boar population in Poland (real-time PCR). The analysis was performed on wild boar samples collected for routine ASF surveillance in Poland, between 2018 and 2021. By extension, the obtained data were compared in regard to ASFV presence in these samples, thus investigating the odds of ASFV infection on the grounds of the PCV carrier state in free-ranging Suidae in Poland. In addition, sequencing of PCV3 and phylogenetic analysis were performed, based on a full genome and a capsid gene. In the current study, we demonstrated the high prevalence of PCV3 in the wild boar population in Poland; meanwhile, PCV4 was not detected. The odds of ASFV infection on the grounds of the PCV3 carrier state in free-ranging Suidae in Poland was more than twice as high. Ten full genome sequences of PCV3 were obtained, all of them belonging to clade 3a. The similarity between them was in the range of 98.78–99.80%. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Porcine Viruses 2024)

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8 pages, 1481 KiB

Open AccessBrief Report

Honeysuckle-Derived miR2911 Inhibits Replication of Porcine Reproductive and Respiratory Syndrome Virus by Targeting Viral Gene Regions

by Xinyan Cao, Jiaxi Xue, Adnan Ali, Manyi Zhang, Jinliang Sheng, Yanming Sun and Yanbing Zhang

Viruses 2024, 16(9), 1350; https://doi.org/10.3390/v16091350 - 23 Aug 2024

Viewed by 1057

Abstract

The highly abundant and stable antiviral small RNA derived from honeysuckle, known as miR2911, has been shown to play a key role in inhibiting influenza virus infection and SARS-CoV-2 infection. However, whether miR2911 inhibits the replication of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) remains unknown. Hence, this study investigated the mechanisms underlying the action of miR2911 during PRRSV infection. Six targets of miR2911 within the PRRSV orf1 (Nsp2: 2459 to 2477, 1871 to 1892, 954 to 977, and 1271 to 1292; Nsp1: 274 to 296 and 822 to 841) were successfully identified by using the miRanda v1.0b software. The miR2911 target sequence was analyzed by target sequence comparison, and only individual base mutations existed in different prevalent strains, and the miR2911 target region was highly conserved among different strains. Subsequently, through the dual luciferase reporter gene assay and miR2911 overexpression assay, it was demonstrated that miR2911 significantly inhibits the replication of PRRSV by targeting regions of PRRSV Nsp1 and Nsp2. These findings offer new insights for the development of novel anti-PRRSV drugs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Porcine Viruses 2024)

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