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A special issue of Water (ISSN 2073-4441). This special issue belongs to the section "Wastewater Treatment and Reuse".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (10 November 2024) | Viewed by 29622

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Dr. Daniela Mesquita

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Guest Editor

Centre of Biological Engineering (CEB), Universidade do Minho, 4710-057 Braga, Portugal
Interests: water and wastewater treatment; microscopy; spectroscopy; waste valorization; chemometric techniques

Dr. Cristina Quintelas

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Guest Editor

Centre of Biological Engineering (CEB), Universidade do Minho, 4710-057 Braga, Portugal
Interests: adsorption; biodegradation; chemometrics; pollutants removal; advanced analytical techniques
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Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Over time, the development of new technologies and products has promoted not only progress but several environmental concerns. Conventional methods to remove pollutants from wastewater treatment plants are inefficient, and new methods are welcome. The discharge of large quantities of pollutants to surface waters is a contributing factor to the lack of potable water. In addition, supply and demand of fresh water is skewed in the world, which increases water stress in many regions, with some serious conflicts as a result. While there is a severe shortage of fresh water, many water uses do not require high-quality water. Wastewater reclamation, i.e., the reuse of treated wastewater, has been identified as one of the most significant approaches to meet current and future water demands.

The current Special Issue will focus on emphasizing the timely research studies that address the existing new technologies used to remove pollutants from wastewater aiming the water reuse. The topics for the Special Issue should include but are not limited to the following areas: the different sources of pollutants; their fate and occurrence in the environment; toxicity and risk assessments; different methods employed to remove these pollutants from the environment; advances in analytical chemical and bioanalytical techniques for the identification and quantification of pollutants in aqueous systems; advances in technologies used to assess removal processes; and methods to assess the quality of the treated water aiming the reuse. We invite the authors to submit scientific studies that include original and innovative research papers, reviews, and short communications.

Dr. Daniela Mesquita
Dr. Cristina Quintelas
Guest Editors

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Keywords

wastewater
treatment
monitoring
pollutants
water reuse

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Published Papers (12 papers)

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Research

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15 pages, 3757 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Characteristics of Nitrogen Removal from an Integrated Fixed-Film Activated Sludge (IFAS) System and the Relationship Between Activated Sludge and Biofilm Interactions

by Zishuo Tuo, Long Bai, Baoping Zhang, Shuangyi Jing, Chenxi Li and Shike Tang

Water 2024, 16(21), 3040; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16213040 - 23 Oct 2024

Viewed by 549

Abstract

In order to investigate the enhancement mechanism of modified three-dimensional elastic filler (MTEF) on the nitrogen removal performance of the integrated fixed-film activated sludge (IFAS) process, and to clarify the interactions between competition and synergy between activated sludge and biofilm in the IFAS system, an IFAS reactor (T2) filled with MTEF was employed for the study, while a sequencing batch reactor activated sludge process (SBR) reactor (T1) was utilized for comparison. IFAS and SBR reactors were operated over an extended period at ambient temperature to assess the enhancement of pollutant removal performance with the addition of the filler to investigate the competitive dynamics between activated sludge and biofilm under varying influent water qualities (C/N, N/P, and organic loading), and to analyze the synergistic relationship between activated sludge and biofilm at the microbial level using high-throughput sequencing technology. The results demonstrate that throughout the entire operational phase, reactor T2 exhibited superior pollutant removal efficiency. Compared to reactor T1, reactor T2 achieved an average increase in the removal rates of COD, ammonia nitrogen, and total nitrogen by 13.07%, 12.26%, and 28.96%, respectively. The findings on the competitive dynamics between activated sludge and biofilm indicate that the nitrification volumetric load of the IFAS system is significantly higher than that of a pure activated sludge system, suggesting that the IFAS system possesses enhanced nitrification capabilities. Furthermore, when dealing with wastewater characterized by low C/N ratios and high phosphorus pollution, or under substantial organic loads, the biofilm holds a competitive edge and the IFAS system exhibits improved stability. High-throughput sequencing data reveal that the microbial community structures in activated sludge and biofilm can influence each other, thereby enabling the IFAS system to effectively enrich denitrification-related functional microbial populations. Additionally, the biofilm has a certain enhancing effect on the expression levels of nitrogen metabolism-related functional genes in the activated sludge phase microorganisms, indicating that, in addition to competitive interactions, there is also a synergistic effect between the biofilm and activated sludge. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Technologies for Wastewater Treatment and Water Reuse)

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17 pages, 5002 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Degradation of Rhodamine B by an Electro-Fenton Reactor Constructed with Gas Diffusion Electrode and Heterogeneous CuFeO@C Particles

by Shuo Li, Siyang Gu, Xiaotong Jia, Xin Su, Yifan Li, Yang Zhang, Yunmei Du and Yuanhong Ding

Water 2024, 16(20), 2906; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16202906 - 13 Oct 2024

Viewed by 778

Abstract

Compared with conventional Fenton processes, the electro-Fenton process consumes fewer chemicals and produces less sludge, as it can generate the required Fenton’s reagents in situ. In this work, an electro-Fenton reactor was constructed to treat synthetic rhodamine B (Rh B) wastewater, in which a gas diffusion electrode (GDE) was used as a cathode to produce H₂O₂, and heterogeneous CuFeO@C particles were used to generate Fe²⁺ in situ. The results indicated that the gas diffusion electrode made of elements N-S-B and r-graphene oxide (NSB-r-GO) composites produced more H₂O₂ than the one made from r-graphene oxide (r-GO), under the conditions of 0.1 mol ·L⁻¹ Na₂SO₄ electrolyte, 10 mA·cm⁻² current density, and 1.0 L·min⁻¹ O₂ flow rate, with the accumulated H₂O₂ production reaching 105.43 mg·L⁻¹. Additionally, different iron morphologies, including octahedral Fe (II), octahedral Fe (III), and tetrahedral Fe (III), were found in the calcined CuFeO@C particles, approximately 1.0 mg·L⁻¹ of iron ions dissolved in the electrolyte was detected, which worked simultaneously as conductive electrodes in a conceptual three-dimensional electrochemical reactor consisting of a gas diffusion electrode cathode, Ti/RuSn anode, and CuFeO@C particle electrodes. No external Fenton reagents were necessary. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Technologies for Wastewater Treatment and Water Reuse)

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18 pages, 2974 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Degradation of Procion Golden Yellow H-R Dye Using Ultrasound Combined with Advanced Oxidation Process

by Rahat F. Momin, Kalyani R. Deshmukh and Parag R. Gogate

Water 2024, 16(16), 2344; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16162344 - 21 Aug 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 944

Abstract

The current study aims to degrade Procion Golden Yellow H-R through ultrasound-induced cavitation coupled with various oxidants. A comprehensive investigation was conducted to examine the impact of parameters, specifically pH, power, and frequency, on the extent of degradation. The primary aim was to optimize degradation by solely utilizing a cavitation reactor where only 23.8% degradation was observed under the established optimum conditions of pH 2.5, frequency of 22 kHz, and power of 200 W. The investigation of the combined process of cavitation with H₂O₂, Fenton reagent (H₂O₂/Fe²⁺), NaOCl, and potassium persulphate (KPS) was subsequently conducted under optimized conditions. The combined operations greatly enhanced degradation with the use of H₂O₂ loading of 0.1 g/L leading to 53.3% degradation and the H₂O₂/Fe²⁺ ratio of 1:0.25 resulting in 94.6% degradation, while the NaOCl quantum of 0.075 g/L yielded 90% degradation and the KPS quantity of 2 g/L resulted in 97.5% degradation in the specific combinations. A toxicity test on two bacterial strains, Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli, was carried out using the original dye solution and after treatment. The various individual and combination processes were compared using the parameters of cavitational yield and total treatment cost. The study elucidates that combining ultrasonic cavitation with KPS is an effective method for treating wastewater containing Procion Golden Yellow H-R dye, especially when implemented at a larger scale of operation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Technologies for Wastewater Treatment and Water Reuse)

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18 pages, 2104 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Virtual Screening of Fluorescent Heterocyclic Molecules and Advanced Oxidation Degradation of Rhodamine B in Synthetic Solutions

by Gabriela Vizuete, Fabián Santana-Romo and Cristina E. Almeida-Naranjo

Water 2024, 16(15), 2141; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16152141 - 29 Jul 2024

Viewed by 815

Abstract

A virtual screening, a process based on computational chemistry that involves the rapid evaluation of a large number of compounds to identify those with the most promising characteristics, is presented. This screening found concordance in the fluorescent heterocyclic compounds with isosteres of similar reactivity, determining that rhodamine B (RhB) meets the necessary criteria for its use. Furthermore, with the values calculated in silico, it is considered to be a compound with low adsorption and oral bioavailability, so its degradation was evaluated by advanced oxidation processes (POAs), such as the catalytic process with titanium dioxide (TiO₂), hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂), and presence or absence of dissolved oxygen (O₂), in which the concentration of RhB and amount of TiO₂ were varied, and the photo-Fenton process with an ultraviolet light emitting diode (UV-LED), zero-valent iron (ZVI) and H₂O₂, in which the amount of ZVI and H₂O₂ were varied. The results indicate that the catalytic process achieves a removal of 95.11% compared to 80.42% in the photo-Fenton process, concluding that the greater the amount of ZVI in the solution, the greater the degradation of RhB and that the residual amount of iron (II) (Fe²⁺) ions in the solution is less than 0.3 mg/L without causing secondary contamination. These results highlight the efficacy and feasibility of POAs for the removal of dyes such as RhB, which offers a promising solution for the remediation of contaminated waters. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Technologies for Wastewater Treatment and Water Reuse)

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17 pages, 12086 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Rapid Formation and Performance of Aerobic Granular Sludge Driven by a Sodium Alginate Nucleus under Different Organic Loading Rates and C/N Ratios

by Chunjuan Gan, Qiming Cheng, Renyu Chen, Xi Chen, Ying Chen, Yizhou Wu, Cong Li, Shanchuan Xu and Yao Chen

Water 2024, 16(10), 1336; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16101336 - 8 May 2024

Viewed by 1018

Abstract

The use of aerobic granular sludge (AGS) for wastewater treatment has emerged as a promising biotechnology. A sodium alginate nucleus (SAN) incorporated into the AGS system can enhance aerobic granulation. Two important parameters influencing AGS formation and stability are the organic loading rate (OLR) and C/N ratio. In this study, AGS containing the SAN was cultivated under different OLR and C/N ratios. Through morphological analysis, physicochemical properties, and water quality analysis, the effects of the OLR and C/N ratio on the rapid formation and performance of AGS containing the SAN were investigated. The results showed that the most suitable OLR and C/N ratio in the SAN system were 1.4–2.4 kg/(m³∙d) and 10–15, respectively. A recovery experiment of sodium alginate (SA) showed that the group that formed AGS generally had a higher recovery efficiency compared with the group that did not form granular sludge. This work explored the suitable granulation conditions of AGS containing the SAN, and the results provide a theoretical basis for future practical applications. The recycling of SA as presented in this study may broaden the application prospects of SA. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Technologies for Wastewater Treatment and Water Reuse)

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19 pages, 4664 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Optimizing Reverse Osmosis Feed Spacer Design for Enhanced Dimethylphenol Removal from Wastewater: A Study of Hydrodynamics and Performance Indicators

by Mudhar A. Al-Obaidi, Farhan Lafta Rashid, Arman Ameen, Mohammed Kadhom and Iqbal M. Mujtaba

Water 2024, 16(6), 895; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16060895 - 20 Mar 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1235

Abstract

Due to its high pollutant rejection and low energy usage, the spiral wound module of reverse osmosis (RO) process is the most commonly used technology utilised in wastewater treatment. For a spiral wound module, the presence of a feed spacer is important as a key solution to mitigate the concentration polarisation phenomenon, due to disorderly fluid flow, and to improve the mass transfer coefficient. Undoubtedly, improvements in the spiral wound module design, mainly in the symmetrical shape of the feed spacer, can have a significant impact on the cost and probable use of these modules. Despite the wide interest in appraising the impact of feed spacer geometry and orientation on the performance of a spiral wound module for RO process-based water desalination, the hydrodynamics of feed spacers (pressure drop and mass transfer coefficient) and the associated influences of feed spacer design (the height of the feed spacer, the angle of the filaments, and the porosity) on the removal of pollutants from wastewater have not yet been addressed. The current investigation aims to fill this gap by studying the hydrodynamics and design parameters of the selected parallelogram feed spacer type ultrafiltration (UF−3) for the removal of dimethylphenol from wastewater. Using model-based simulation, the impacts of UF−3 feed spacer design parameters, including the height, angle between the filaments (orientation), and porosity on the pressure drop, friction factor, axial flow fluid velocity, mass transfer coefficient, water flux, dimethylphenol rejection, recovery rate, and specific energy consumption are detailed in this study. The study intends to demonstrate the optimum design features of UF−3 feed spacer that should be considered to assure the highest elimination of dimethylphenol from wastewater in addition to the lowest specific energy consumption. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Technologies for Wastewater Treatment and Water Reuse)

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14 pages, 1846 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Nitrogen Removal Mechanism and Microbial Community Changes of the MBR Bioaugmented with Two Novel Fungi Pichia kudriavzevii N7 and Candida tropicalis N9

by Minglei Ma, Qiang Gui, Weisheng Zheng, Yingjie Zhang and Kai Wang

Water 2024, 16(5), 757; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16050757 - 2 Mar 2024

Viewed by 1539

Abstract

Ammonia nitrogen wastewater causes dissolved oxygen concentrations to decrease and the content of harmful substances to increase. To characterize the application properties of two novel strains of highly efficient ammonium transforming fungi—Pichia kudriavzevii N7 and Candida tropicalis N9—this study used both as compound microbial agents to treat nitrogenous wastewater. Here, we investigated the bioaugmentation effect of compound fungi N7 and N9 in the MBR bioreactor and the effect of N7 and N9 on the fungal and bacterial microbial communities in the system. The results revealed that in the first week after inoculation of N7 and N9, the average removal rate of ammonium in the experimental and control groups were 89.43% and 82.86%, respectively, and the NO₃⁻-N accumulation concentrations were 12.56 mg·L⁻¹ and 17.73 mg·L⁻¹, respectively. The average transformation rate of total nitrogen in the experimental and control groups were 46.32% and 30.6%, respectively. ITS sequencing results indicated that N9 could be a dominant fungus in the complex MBR system. The results of 16S rRNA sequencing showed that the dominant bacterial communities in the system were changed by the inoculation of compound fungi. Therefore, the compound fungi can be applied to strengthen the treatment of nitrogenous wastewater due to its compatibility. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Technologies for Wastewater Treatment and Water Reuse)

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15 pages, 2134 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Identification of Selective Pathogenic Microbial Community Biofilms in Different Distribution Pipeline Materials and Their Disinfection Kinetics

by Sanam Bhatti, Tanveer A. Gadhi, Rasool Bux Mahar, Imran Ali, Najeebullah Channa, Junaid Ahmed Kori and Barbara Bonelli

Water 2023, 15(23), 4099; https://doi.org/10.3390/w15234099 - 26 Nov 2023

Viewed by 2627

Abstract

Biofilms in water distribution lines strongly affect water safety as they are the main carriers of pathogens. The current study investigated the biofilm formation and identification of selected pathogens in different distribution pipeline materials and their disinfection method in an annular reactor (AR). Initially, the quality of the flowing water from each pipeline material was analyzed, i.e., pH, TDS, EC, turbidity, and salinity; then, the biofilm formation was monitored for each material, i.e., ABS, PC, PVC, PP, and HDPE. Further, the disinfection kinetics of biofilm at different chlorine doses, i.e., 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, and 2.0 mg/L, was investigated. The selected pathogens, i.e., E. coli, Pseudomonas, Shigella, Salmonella sp., and Vibrio sp. were identified in biofilms formed in different pipeline materials. The disinfection kinetics results showed that a chlorine dose of 2.0 mg/L was the most effective in disinfecting selected pathogens. Following the disinfection kinetics, it was observed that Salmonella sp. was disinfected within 7 days, whereas other pathogenic biofilms were disinfected within 14 days. The efficacy of chlorine disinfection was affected by the types of pipeline materials. The study outcomes could provide insights into biofilms’ disinfection method and the selection of suitable pipeline materials to ensure drinking water safety. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Technologies for Wastewater Treatment and Water Reuse)

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10 pages, 575 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Application of the Weighted Arithmetic Water Quality Index in Assessing Groundwater Quality: A Case Study of the South Gujarat Region

by Divya D. Patel, Darshan J. Mehta, Hazi M. Azamathulla, Mohdzuned Mohmedraffi Shaikh, Shivendra Jha and Upaka Rathnayake

Water 2023, 15(19), 3512; https://doi.org/10.3390/w15193512 - 8 Oct 2023

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 5318

Abstract

Groundwater is a natural resource used for drinking, agriculture, and industry, apart from surface water. Its quality should be assessed regularly, and the condition of water resources should be maintained accordingly. The most common analytical method for describing and assessing the general water quality is the Water Quality Index (WQI). This study aims to assess the South Gujarat Region’s groundwater quality using the WQI. Various physicochemical parameters like pH, turbidity, total dissolved solids, total hardness, calcium, magnesium, chloride, sulphate, nitrate, fluorides, and total alkalinity are considered for the present study. The data period from 2018 to 2022 is considered for the same. The Weighted Arithmetic Water Quality Index Technique is used to evaluate these data. For checking the potability of the parameters within the acceptable limit, the Indian Standard Drinking Water Specification code (IS: 10050-2012) is adopted. According to the study mentioned above, a few wells’ groundwater quality has been found to be higher than the WQI value. It is also observed that four wells were found unsuitable for drinking purposes in 2018. It is noted that if the WQI value of groundwater is above 51, it is considered harmful to human health; therefore, it requires some kind of processing before use. This study will be beneficial to the policymakers for identifying and providing details about groundwater quality in the form of a specific value, i.e., WQI. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Technologies for Wastewater Treatment and Water Reuse)

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20 pages, 4415 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Adsorptive Performance of Walnut Shells Modified with Urea and Surfactant for Cationic Dye Removal

by Yuliana Shkliarenko, Vita Halysh and Alla Nesterenko

Water 2023, 15(8), 1536; https://doi.org/10.3390/w15081536 - 14 Apr 2023

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2375

Abstract

Adsorption of cationic dye crystal violet (CV) onto a modified walnut shell (WS) adsorbent was investigated. Combined treatment of WS using urea and sodium dodecylsulfate (SDS) was carried out. Surface modification of adsorbents was confirmed by FTIR analysis, pHpzc measurements, and elemental and SEM-EDX analysis. In order to optimize the adsorption conditions, the effect of solution pH, adsorbent dose and CV concentration was studied by means of central composite face-centered design (CCFD). The highest correlation between experimental and model data was obtained for the pseudo-second-order (PSO) kinetic model, assuming an ion exchange mechanism of adsorption. A satisfactory fit of CV adsorption data was obtained from the Langmuir adsorption isotherm, supporting a single layer adsorption. According to obtained results, modified WS can be considered as a low-cost, efficient and environmentally compatible biosorbent for the removal of cationic pollutants from aqueous solutions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Technologies for Wastewater Treatment and Water Reuse)

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Review

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38 pages, 6136 KiB

Open AccessReview

Recent Advancements in the Treatment of Petroleum Refinery Wastewater

by Muhammad Shettima Lawan, Rajeev Kumar, Jamshaid Rashid and Mohamed Abou El-Fetouh Barakat

Water 2023, 15(20), 3676; https://doi.org/10.3390/w15203676 - 20 Oct 2023

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 8387

Abstract

The treatment of petroleum refinery wastewater (PRWW) is of great interest in industrial wastewater management. This wastewater contains a diverse concentration of contaminants such as oil and grease, petroleum hydrocarbons, phenols, ammonia, and sulfides, as well as other organic and inorganic composites. Refinery wastewater treatment has been attempted through various processes, including physical, biological, chemical, and hybrid methods, which combine two or more techniques. This review aims to summarize current research studies involved in the treatment of petroleum refinery wastewater using conventional, advanced, and integrated treatment techniques. Furthermore, it critically highlights the efficiencies and major limitations of each technique and the prospects for improvements. Several conventional treatment techniques (basically, the physicochemical and biological processes) are discussed. In this context, advanced oxidation processes (AoPs), especially electrochemical oxidation and photocatalysis, as well as integrated/hybrid processes are found to be effective in removing the recalcitrant fraction of organic pollutants through their various inherent mechanisms. These techniques could effectively remove COD and phenol concentrations with an average removal efficiency exceeding 90%. Hence, the review also presents an elaborate discussion of the photocatalytic process as one of the advanced techniques and highlights some basic concepts to optimize the degradation efficiency of photocatalysts. Finally, a brief recommendation for research prospects is also presented. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Technologies for Wastewater Treatment and Water Reuse)

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15 pages, 781 KiB

Open AccessReview

Alternatives for Fresh Water in Cement-Based Materials: A Review

by Sumra Yousuf, Payam Shafigh, Zakaria Che Muda, Herda Yati Binti Katman and Abid Latif

Water 2023, 15(15), 2828; https://doi.org/10.3390/w15152828 - 4 Aug 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2692

Abstract

Huge amounts of fresh water are used in the concrete industry every day. The quantity and quality of water play important roles in determining the quality, strength, setting time, and durability of cement-based materials (CBMs), such as paste, mortar, and concrete. Freshwater systems are under pressure due to climate changes, industrialisation, population growth, urbanisation, and the lack of proper water resource management. The lack of potable water has resulted in the search for possible alternatives, such as seawater, treated industrial wastewater, treated sewage wastewater, carwash service station wastewater, wastewater from ready-mix concrete plants, and wastewater from the stone-cutting industry. All of these water resources can be used in concrete to achieve adequate industry standards for the physical and chemical characteristics of concrete. This study is a comprehensive review of the existing information regarding the effects of alternate water resources on the fresh, physical, strength, and durability properties of CBMs. The review shows that the research on the utilisation of wastewater in CBMs is limited. The development of different procedures and methods is urgently needed to utilise various wastewaters in concrete production. The usage of various wastewaters in concrete construction overcomes their adverse impacts on the environment and human health. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Technologies for Wastewater Treatment and Water Reuse)

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