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13 pages, 1978 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Long-Term Infiltration Performance Evaluation of Dutch Permeable Pavements Using the Full-Scale Infiltration Method

by Floris Boogaard and Terry Lucke

Water 2019, 11(2), 320; https://doi.org/10.3390/w11020320 - 14 Feb 2019

Cited by 24 | Viewed by 7289

Abstract

This research used a newly developed, full-scale infiltration testing (FSIT) procedure to determine the saturated surface infiltration rate of 16 existing permeable pavement installations in the Netherlands that have been in service for a number of years. Newly installed permeable pavements in the [...] Read more.

This research used a newly developed, full-scale infiltration testing (FSIT) procedure to determine the saturated surface infiltration rate of 16 existing permeable pavement installations in the Netherlands that have been in service for a number of years. Newly installed permeable pavements in the Netherlands must demonstrate a minimum infiltration capacity of 194 mm/h (540 L/s/ha). Only four of the 16 pavements tested in this study had an infiltration capacity higher than 194 mm/h. Most previous research has focused on unsaturated infiltration rates. However, the results of this study show that the difference in infiltration capacity between saturated and unsaturated can differ by up to 300%. If the unsaturated infiltration capacity is used as design input for computer models, the infiltration capacity may be significantly overestimated. The study demonstrated that the FSIT method is a reliable and accurate way to measure surface infiltration rates of permeable pavements. However, it is recommended that a minimum of three different FSIT tests should be undertaken at the same pavement location, and that the results should be averaged, to ensure appropriate infiltration rates are observed, recorded, and used in design. The results of this study should help stormwater managers with the planning, testing, and scheduling of maintenance requirements for permeable pavements with more confidence so that they will continue to perform satisfactorily over their intended design life. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Permeable Pavements and Their Role in Sustainable Urban Development)

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15 pages, 2333 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Hydraulic Performance of Lined Permeable Pavement Systems in the Built Environment

by Jan Støvring, Torben Dam and Marina Bergen Jensen

Water 2018, 10(5), 587; https://doi.org/10.3390/w10050587 - 1 May 2018

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 4748

Abstract

The hydraulic performance of permeable pavement (PP) systems has been well demonstrated when based on full or partial on-site infiltration, while there is only limited research on lined PP systems built to provide detention and volume reduction by evaporation only. In this study, [...] Read more.

The hydraulic performance of permeable pavement (PP) systems has been well demonstrated when based on full or partial on-site infiltration, while there is only limited research on lined PP systems built to provide detention and volume reduction by evaporation only. In this study, we tested the performance of commercially available PP components when constructed as lined PP systems with un-throttled discharge to explore basic hydraulic function in a real-life-setting. Four types of PP surface products and three types of sub-base aggregates were tested in six unique combinations, built as side-by-side parking lots into an existing parking area, each stall having a size of 25 m² and 0.5 m of depth with individual lining. Based on 12 months of monitoring precipitation and discharge from each stall, total volume reduction ranged from 3% to 37%. Analysis of up to 22 single events, representing return periods of up to two years, revealed marked detention capacities, expressed as median volume reduction of 40%, spanning 27–69% and median lag time of 1:38 h, spanning 0:39–3:16 h, across all stalls. The considerable range in hydraulic properties can be ascribed to both surface and sub-base properties. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Permeable Pavements and Their Role in Sustainable Urban Development)

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14 pages, 38521 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

The Long-Term Hydrological Performance of Permeable Pavement Systems in Northern Spain: An Approach to the “End-of-Life” Concept

by Luis A. Sañudo-Fontaneda, Valerio C. Andres-Valeri, Carlos Costales-Campa, Iñigo Cabezon-Jimenez and Fernando Cadenas-Fernandez

Water 2018, 10(4), 497; https://doi.org/10.3390/w10040497 - 17 Apr 2018

Cited by 28 | Viewed by 7058

Abstract

Porous mixtures and Interlocking Concrete Block Pavements (ICBP) are the most widely used surfaces in Permeable Pavement Systems (PPS). Despite the fact that there are many studies based on the hydrological performance of PPS, there are few long-term studies that identify the end [...] Read more.

Porous mixtures and Interlocking Concrete Block Pavements (ICBP) are the most widely used surfaces in Permeable Pavement Systems (PPS). Despite the fact that there are many studies based on the hydrological performance of PPS, there are few long-term studies that identify the end of life of PPS regarding their hydrological performance. A field study has been developed over 10 years in the experimental car park “Las Llamas” in the city of Santander, Northern Spain. Permeability was measured in 37 car park bays (nine Polymer-Modified Porous Concrete, nine Porous Asphalt, and 17 ICBP of two different designs). Tests were conducted under the Spanish Standard NLT-327/00 for the porous-mixture surfaces and the ASTM methods C1701/C1701M-17a and C1781/C1781M-15 for porous mixtures and ICBP, respectively. No maintenance was carried out in this car park since it was opened to traffic in 2008, allowing for the assessment and identification of the hydrological failure of each surface. The research showed that after 10 years of operation without maintenance, the bays constructed using porous mixtures were completely clogged, reaching the end of their operational life after nine years. However, ICBP maintained high infiltration rates, showing better resilience to sediment clogging. Further research is needed to confirm the evolution of ICBP surfaces. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Permeable Pavements and Their Role in Sustainable Urban Development)

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15 pages, 34428 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Characterization of the Infiltration Capacity of Porous Concrete Pavements with Low Constant Head Permeability Tests

by Valerio C. Andres-Valeri, Luis Juli-Gandara, Daniel Jato-Espino and Jorge Rodriguez-Hernandez

Water 2018, 10(4), 480; https://doi.org/10.3390/w10040480 - 14 Apr 2018

Cited by 22 | Viewed by 7695

Abstract

Porous concrete (PC) has been extensively used as a surface layer in permeable pavements. The effectiveness of this material in managing stormwater runoff depends not only on subsurface storage, but on infiltration capacity during rainfall events. A variety of tests have been traditionally [...] Read more.

Porous concrete (PC) has been extensively used as a surface layer in permeable pavements. The effectiveness of this material in managing stormwater runoff depends not only on subsurface storage, but on infiltration capacity during rainfall events. A variety of tests have been traditionally used for assessing their infiltration capacity, however, there is still uncertainty about whether these tests produce representative performance results under real conditions. This study aims to propose a methodology based on saturated and unsaturated low constant head (LCH) permeability tests, in order to characterize in detail the infiltration performance of PC materials during storm events and predict their infiltration behavior over time. To this end, three different infiltration tests were performed on PC specimens, both in newly built conditions and after being clogged. These experiments included unsaturated LCH, Laboratorio Caminos Santander (LCS) (one falling head permeameter) and saturated LCH tests. The results achieved were analyzed to describe the infiltration performance of the PC pavements tested. Finally, the correlation between the results obtained from on-site tests and laboratory scale devices was studied, providing the regression equations required to apply the infiltration models developed with easily measurable parameters. Consequently, the outputs of this research showed the suitability of the proposed methodology for assessing the infiltration behavior of PC pavements during storm events. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Permeable Pavements and Their Role in Sustainable Urban Development)

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9 pages, 14992 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Effect of Particle Size on Sediment Accumulation in Permeable Pavements

by Kelly Diane Hill and Simon Beecham

Water 2018, 10(4), 403; https://doi.org/10.3390/w10040403 - 29 Mar 2018

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 6674

Abstract

This paper investigates the sediment retention behaviour of laboratory-based permeable pavements using mono-sized sediments that were representative of the sizes typically found in urban stormwater. The sediments were applied in two cycles, namely in order of increasing and decreasing size. The results indicated [...] Read more.

This paper investigates the sediment retention behaviour of laboratory-based permeable pavements using mono-sized sediments that were representative of the sizes typically found in urban stormwater. The sediments were applied in two cycles, namely in order of increasing and decreasing size. The results indicated that most of the sediment accumulation could be attributed to the depth of the pavement and the material used in the joint and bedding aggregates. Most of the sediment was retained in the bedding and surface layers, and little difference to the retention was made by the incorporation of a basecourse layer. When the mono-sized sediments were added in decreasing size order with the coarsest sediments applied first, the overall rate of retention increased. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Permeable Pavements and Their Role in Sustainable Urban Development)

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22 pages, 9049 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Determining Surface Infiltration Rate of Permeable Pavements with Digital Imaging

by Caterina Valeo and Rishi Gupta

Water 2018, 10(2), 133; https://doi.org/10.3390/w10020133 - 31 Jan 2018

Cited by 22 | Viewed by 5434

Abstract

Cell phone images of pervious pavement surfaces were used to explore relationships between surface infiltration rates (SIR) measured using the ASTM C1701 standard test and using a simple falling head test. A fiber-reinforced porous asphalt surface and a highly permeable material comprised of [...] Read more.

Cell phone images of pervious pavement surfaces were used to explore relationships between surface infiltration rates (SIR) measured using the ASTM C1701 standard test and using a simple falling head test. A fiber-reinforced porous asphalt surface and a highly permeable material comprised of stone, rubber and a polymer binder (Porous Pave) were tested. Images taken with a high-resolution cellphone camera were acquired as JPEG files and converted to gray scale images in Matlab^® for analysis. The distribution of gray levels was compared to the surface infiltration rates obtained for both pavements with attention given to the mean of the distribution. Investigation into the relationships between mean SIR and parameters determined from the gray level distribution produced in the image analysis revealed that mean SIR measured in both pavements were proportional to the inverse of the mean of the distribution. The relationships produced a coefficient of determination over 85% using both the ASTM and the falling head test in the porous asphalt surface. SIR measurements determined with the ASTM method were highly correlated with the inverse mean of the distribution of gray levels in the Porous Pave material as well, producing coefficients of determination of over 90% and Kendall’s tau-b of roughly 70% for nonparametric data. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Permeable Pavements and Their Role in Sustainable Urban Development)

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21 pages, 11629 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Hydrologic and Water Quality Evaluation of a Permeable Pavement and Biofiltration Device in Series

by Alessandra S. Braswell, Andrew R. Anderson and William F. Hunt

Water 2018, 10(1), 33; https://doi.org/10.3390/w10010033 - 3 Jan 2018

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 8386

Abstract

Two stormwater control measures (SCMs) installed in series were monitored for their individual impact on the hydrology and water quality of stormwater runoff from a 0.08-hectare watershed in Fayetteville, North Carolina, for 22 months. Runoff was first treated by permeable interlocking concrete pavement [...] Read more.

Two stormwater control measures (SCMs) installed in series were monitored for their individual impact on the hydrology and water quality of stormwater runoff from a 0.08-hectare watershed in Fayetteville, North Carolina, for 22 months. Runoff was first treated by permeable interlocking concrete pavement (PICP), the underdrain of which discharged into a proprietary box filter (Filterra^® biofiltration) which combined high-flow-engineered media with modest biological treatment from a planted tree. Due to a deteriorating contributing drainage area and high ratio of impervious area to permeable pavement area (2.6:1), clogging of the permeable pavement surface caused an estimated 38% of stormwater to bypass as surface runoff. Fifty-six percent of runoff volume infiltrated underlying soils, and the remaining 6% exited the Filterra^® as treated effluent; the hydrologic benefit of the Filterra^® was minimal, as expected. Primary treatment through the PICP significantly reduced event mean concentrations (EMCs) of total suspended solids (TSS), total phosphorus (TP), total nitrogen (TN), and total Kjeldahl nitrogen (TKN) but contributed to a significant increase in nitrate/nitrite (NO_2,3–N) concentrations. Secondary treatment by the Filterra^® further reduced TSS and TP concentrations and supplemented nitrogen removal such that treatment provided by the overall system was as follows: TSS (removal efficiency (RE): 96%), TP (RE: 75%), TN (RE: 42%), and TKN (RE: 51%). EMCs remained unchanged for NO_2,3–N. Despite EMC reductions, additional load reduction due to the Filterra^® was modest (less than 2%). This was because (1) a majority of pollutant load was removed via PICP exfiltration losses, and (2) nearly all of the export load was from untreated surface runoff, which bypassed the Filterra^®, and therefore the manufactured device never had the opportunity to treat it. Cumulative load reductions (based only upon events with samples collected at each sampling location) were 69%, 60%, and 41% for TSS, TP, and TN, respectively. When surface runoff was excluded, load reductions increased to over 96%; lower run-on ratios (which would reduce clogging rate) and/or increased maintenance frequency might have improved pollutant load removal. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Permeable Pavements and Their Role in Sustainable Urban Development)

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Review

Jump to: Research

9 pages, 2404 KiB

Open AccessReview

A Review of Permeable Pavement Clogging Investigations and Recommended Maintenance Regimes

by Mostafa Razzaghmanesh and Simon Beecham

Water 2018, 10(3), 337; https://doi.org/10.3390/w10030337 - 17 Mar 2018

Cited by 65 | Viewed by 9315

Abstract

Understanding clogging mechanisms in permeable pavements can help optimize the required maintenance regime. In this review paper, methods for investigating clogging mechanisms are described. These include surface infiltration methods, the use of embedded sensors, and the development of modelling tools. Previously conducted surface [...] Read more.

Understanding clogging mechanisms in permeable pavements can help optimize the required maintenance regime. In this review paper, methods for investigating clogging mechanisms are described. These include surface infiltration methods, the use of embedded sensors, and the development of modelling tools. Previously conducted surface infiltration tests indicate the importance of the age of a permeable pavement system and also local climatic conditions, including rainfall intensity. The results indicate that porous concrete generally has the highest infiltration capacity and this is followed by permeable interlocking concrete pavement and then porous asphalt. The measured infiltration rates decreased significantly even within two years of installation. There was an indirect relationship between surface infiltration rates and the age of the pavements. It was also found that the rainfall characteristics are important in selecting the type of pavement. Sensor technologies have been used mainly in the United States and there has been a reluctance to use such technologies in other parts of the world. Few studies have been conducted into modelling the changing performance of permeable pavement systems over time and there is a need to develop more general models. Various methods and machinery have been developed for cleaning and maintaining permeable pavements and there is no universally preferred approach currently available. Indeed, several of the commonly used maintenance methods have been shown to be relatively ineffective. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Permeable Pavements and Their Role in Sustainable Urban Development)

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