Trends and Prospects in Security, Encryption and Encoding

Journal Name	Impact Factor	CiteScore	Launched Year	First Decision (median)	APC
Applied Sciences applsci	2.5	5.3	2011	17.8 Days	CHF 2400	Submit
Cryptography cryptography	1.8	3.8	2017	23.9 Days	CHF 1600	Submit
Journal of Cybersecurity and Privacy jcp	-	5.3	2021	32.4 Days	CHF 1000	Submit
Journal of Sensor and Actuator Networks jsan	3.3	7.9	2012	22.6 Days	CHF 2000	Submit
Sci sci	-	4.5	2019	27.4 Days	CHF 1200	Submit
Symmetry symmetry	2.2	5.4	2009	16.8 Days	CHF 2400	Submit

19 pages, 1160 KiB

Open AccessReview

Detecting Denial of Service Attacks (DoS) over the Internet of Drones (IoD) Based on Machine Learning

by Albandari Alsumayt, Naya Nagy, Shatha Alsharyofi, Noor Al Ibrahim, Renad Al-Rabie, Resal Alahmadi, Roaa Ali Alesse and Amal A. Alahmadi

Sci 2024, 6(3), 56; https://doi.org/10.3390/sci6030056 - 20 Sep 2024

Viewed by 828

Abstract

The use of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) or drones has increased lately. This phenomenon is due to UAVs’ wide range of applications in fields such as agriculture, delivery, security and surveillance, and construction. In this context, the security and the continuity of UAV [...] Read more.

The use of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) or drones has increased lately. This phenomenon is due to UAVs’ wide range of applications in fields such as agriculture, delivery, security and surveillance, and construction. In this context, the security and the continuity of UAV operations becomes a crucial issue. Spoofing, jamming, hijacking, and Denial of Service (DoS) attacks are just a few categories of attacks that threaten drones. The present paper is focused on the security of UAVs against DoS attacks. It illustrates the pros and cons of existing methods and resulting challenges. From here, we develop a novel method to detect DoS attacks in UAV environments. DoS attacks themselves have many sub-categories and can be executed using many techniques. Consequently, there is a need for robust protection and mitigation systems to shield UAVs from DoS attacks. One promising security solution is intrusion detection systems (IDSs). IDs paired with machine learning (ML) techniques provide the ability to greatly reduce the risk, as attacks can be detected before they happen. ML plays an important part in improving the performance of IDSs. The many existing ML models that detect DoS attacks on UAVs each carry their own strengths and limitations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Trends and Prospects in Security, Encryption and Encoding)

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17 pages, 348 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Efficient Commutative PQC Algorithms on Isogenies of Edwards Curves

by Anatoly Bessalov, Volodymyr Sokolov and Serhii Abramov

Cryptography 2024, 8(3), 38; https://doi.org/10.3390/cryptography8030038 - 27 Aug 2024

Viewed by 843

Abstract

The article presents the author’s works in the field of modifications and modeling of the Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC) Commutative Supersingular Isogeny Diffie-Hellman (CSIDH) algorithm on non-cyclic supersingular Edwards curves and its predecessor Couveignes-Rostovtsev-Stolbunov (CRS) scheme on ordinary non-cyclic Edwards curves are reviewed. Lower [...] Read more.

The article presents the author’s works in the field of modifications and modeling of the Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC) Commutative Supersingular Isogeny Diffie-Hellman (CSIDH) algorithm on non-cyclic supersingular Edwards curves and its predecessor Couveignes-Rostovtsev-Stolbunov (CRS) scheme on ordinary non-cyclic Edwards curves are reviewed. Lower estimates of the computational speed gains of the modified algorithms over the original ones are obtained. The most significant results were obtained by choosing classes of non-cyclic Edwards curves connected as quadratic twist pairs instead of cyclic complete Edwards curves, as well as the method of algorithm randomization as an alternative to “constant time CSIDH”. It is shown that in the CSIDH and Commutative Supersingular Isogeny Key Encapsulation (CSIKE) algorithms, there are two independent cryptosystems with the possibility of parallel computation, eliminating the threat of side-channel attacks. There are four such cryptosystems for the CRS scheme. Integral lower bound estimates of the performance gain of the modified CSIDH algorithm are obtained at 1.5 × 2⁹, and for the CRS scheme are 3 × 2⁹. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Trends and Prospects in Security, Encryption and Encoding)

16 pages, 258 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Understanding and Classifying Permanent Denial-of-Service Attacks

by Stanislav Abaimov

J. Cybersecur. Priv. 2024, 4(2), 324-339; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcp4020016 - 11 May 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2711

Abstract

In the evolving landscape of cybersecurity threats, permanent denial-of-service (PDoS) attacks have emerged as a particularly damaging form of cyber aggression. Unlike the more well-known denial-of-service (DoS) attacks, which disrupt services temporarily, PDoS attacks aim to inflict irreversible damage to systems, often resulting [...] Read more.

In the evolving landscape of cybersecurity threats, permanent denial-of-service (PDoS) attacks have emerged as a particularly damaging form of cyber aggression. Unlike the more well-known denial-of-service (DoS) attacks, which disrupt services temporarily, PDoS attacks aim to inflict irreversible damage to systems, often resulting in significant system overhauls and requiring hardware replacement. To enable the development of effective security measures, but also to address the knowledge gaps, this paper presents an in-depth exploration of PDoS attacks, emphasizing their distinguishing characteristics, underlying mechanisms, and potential further development. Through a comprehensive case study, this research highlights diverse tactics and strategies employed by attackers, from targeting IoT devices to manipulating boot processes and exploiting firmware vulnerabilities. A novel classification of PDoS attack vectors is proposed that also explains the ways in which the systems can be compromised. The findings confirm the pressing need for adaptive and robust defense mechanisms to mitigate the threats posed by PDoS attacks in our interconnected digital world. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Trends and Prospects in Security, Encryption and Encoding)

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15 pages, 311 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis of Biometric-Based Cryptographic Key Exchange Protocols—BAKE and BRAKE

by Maksymilian Gorski and Wojciech Wodo

Cryptography 2024, 8(2), 14; https://doi.org/10.3390/cryptography8020014 - 6 Apr 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1707

Abstract

Biometric authentication methods offer high-quality mechanisms to confirm the identity of individuals in security systems commonly used in the modern world, such as physical access control, online banking, or mobile device unlocking. They also find their application in cryptographic solutions, which allow the [...] Read more.

Biometric authentication methods offer high-quality mechanisms to confirm the identity of individuals in security systems commonly used in the modern world, such as physical access control, online banking, or mobile device unlocking. They also find their application in cryptographic solutions, which allow the biometrically authenticated exchange of cryptographic keys between users and services on the internet, despite the fuzziness of biometric data. Such solutions are BAKE (biometrics-authenticated key exchange) and BRAKE (biometric-resilient authenticated key exchange) protocols, upon which our work is based. However, the direct application of fuzzy biometrics in cryptography, which relies heavily on the accuracy of single-bit secret values, is not trivial. Therefore, this paper is devoted to analyzing the security of this idea and the feasibility of implementing biometric AKE (authenticated key exchange) protocols, with an emphasis on the BRAKE protocol. As the results of our analysis, we discuss BRAKE’s limitations and vulnerabilities, which need to be appropriately addressed to implement the protocol in modern systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Trends and Prospects in Security, Encryption and Encoding)

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23 pages, 4519 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Security Analysis of the Symmetric Cryptosystem TinyJambu

by Amparo Fúster-Sabater and M. E. Pazo-Robles

Symmetry 2024, 16(4), 440; https://doi.org/10.3390/sym16040440 - 5 Apr 2024

Viewed by 937

Abstract

Symmetric cryptography provides the best examples of cryptosystems to be applied in lightweight environments (e.g., IoT). A representative example is the cryptosystem TinyJambu, one of the ten finalists in the NIST Lightweight Cryptography Standardization Project. It is an authentication encryption with associated data [...] Read more.

Symmetric cryptography provides the best examples of cryptosystems to be applied in lightweight environments (e.g., IoT). A representative example is the cryptosystem TinyJambu, one of the ten finalists in the NIST Lightweight Cryptography Standardization Project. It is an authentication encryption with associated data scheme that is extremely lightweight and fast. In this work, we analyze the security of TinyJambu from two distinct and non-symmetric points of view: (1) the improvement of the best cryptanalytical attack found in the literature and (2) a randomness analysis of the generated sequences. Concerning item (1), we launched a differential forgery attack with probability 2^−65.9487, which was improved considerably compared with previous numerical results. Concerning item (2), we analyzed the degree of randomness of the TinyJambu keystream sequences with a complete and powerful battery of statistical tests. This non-symmetric study shows the weakness of TinyJambu against cryptanalytic attacks as well as the strength of TinyJambu against statistical analysis. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Trends and Prospects in Security, Encryption and Encoding)

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29 pages, 6920 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Game Theory-Based Incentive Design for Mitigating Malicious Behavior in Blockchain Networks

by Souhail Mssassi and Anas Abou El Kalam

J. Sens. Actuator Netw. 2024, 13(1), 7; https://doi.org/10.3390/jsan13010007 - 15 Jan 2024

Viewed by 2812

Abstract

This paper presents an innovative incentive model that utilizes graph and game theories to address the issue of node incentives in decentralized blockchain networks such as EVM blockchains. The lack of incentives for nodes within EVM networks gives rise to potential weaknesses that [...] Read more.

This paper presents an innovative incentive model that utilizes graph and game theories to address the issue of node incentives in decentralized blockchain networks such as EVM blockchains. The lack of incentives for nodes within EVM networks gives rise to potential weaknesses that might be used for various purposes, such as broadcasting fake transactions or withholding blocks. This affects the overall trust and integrity of the network. To address this issue, the current study offers a network model that incorporates the concepts of graph theory and utilizes a matrix representation for reward and trust optimization. Furthermore, this study presents a game-theoretic framework that encourages cooperative conduct and discourages malicious actions, ultimately producing a state of equilibrium according to the Nash equilibrium. The simulations validated the model’s efficacy in addressing fraudulent transactions and emphasized its scalability, security, and fairness benefits. This study makes a valuable contribution to the field of blockchain technology by presenting an incentive model that effectively encourages the development of secure and trusted decentralized systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Trends and Prospects in Security, Encryption and Encoding)

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25 pages, 5910 KiB

Open AccessArticle

High-Capacity Reversible Data Hiding in Encrypted Images Based on Pixel Prediction and QuadTree Decomposition

by Muhannad Alqahtani and Atef Masmoudi

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(23), 12706; https://doi.org/10.3390/app132312706 - 27 Nov 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1120

Abstract

Over the past few years, a considerable number of researchers have shown great interest in reversible data hiding for encrypted images (RDHEI). One popular category among various RDHEI methods is the reserving room before encryption (RRBE) approach, which leverages data redundancy in the [...] Read more.

Over the past few years, a considerable number of researchers have shown great interest in reversible data hiding for encrypted images (RDHEI). One popular category among various RDHEI methods is the reserving room before encryption (RRBE) approach, which leverages data redundancy in the original image before encryption to create space for data hiding and to achieve high embedding rates (ERs). This paper introduces an RRBE-based RDHEI method that employs pixel prediction, quadtree decomposition, and bit plane reordering to provide high embedding capacity and error-free reversibility. Initially, the content owner predicts the error image using a prediction method, followed by mapping it to a new error image with positive pixel values and a compressed binary label map is generated for overhead pixels. Subsequently, quadtree decomposition is applied to each bit plane of the mapped prediction error image to identify homogeneous blocks, which are then reordered to create room for data embedding. After generating the encrypted image with the encryption key, the data hider employs the data hiding key to embed the data based on the auxiliary information added to each embeddable bit plane’s beginning. Finally, the receiver is able to retrieve the secret message without any error, decrypt the image, and restore it without any loss or distortion. The experimental results demonstrate that the proposed RDHEI method achieves significantly higher ERs than previous competitors, with an average ER exceeding

3.6

bpp on the BOSSbase and BOWS-2 datasets. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Trends and Prospects in Security, Encryption and Encoding)

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19 pages, 522 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Gap Analysis of the Adoption Maturity of Certificateless Cryptography in Cooperative Intelligent Transportation Systems

by Hannes Salin and Martin Lundgren

J. Cybersecur. Priv. 2023, 3(3), 591-609; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcp3030028 - 1 Sep 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2256

Abstract

Cooperative Intelligent Transport Systems (C-ITSs) are an important development for society. C-ITSs enhance road safety, improve traffic efficiency, and promote sustainable transportation through interconnected and intelligent communication between vehicles, infrastructure, and traffic-management systems. Many real-world implementations still consider traditional Public Key Infrastructures (PKI) [...] Read more.

Cooperative Intelligent Transport Systems (C-ITSs) are an important development for society. C-ITSs enhance road safety, improve traffic efficiency, and promote sustainable transportation through interconnected and intelligent communication between vehicles, infrastructure, and traffic-management systems. Many real-world implementations still consider traditional Public Key Infrastructures (PKI) as the underlying trust model and security control. However, there are challenges with the PKI-based security control from a scalability and revocation perspective. Lately, certificateless cryptography has gained research attention, also in conjunction with C-ITSs, making it a new type of security control to be considered. In this study, we use certificateless cryptography as a candidate to investigate factors affecting decisions (not) to adopt new types of security controls, and study its current gaps, key challenges and possible enablers which can influence the industry. We provide a qualitative study with industry specialists in C-ITSs, combined with a literature analysis of the current state of research in certificateless cryptographic in C-ITS. It was found that only 53% of the current certificateless cryptography literature for C-ITSs in 2022–2023 provide laboratory testing of the protocols, and 0% have testing in real-world settings. However, the trend of research output in the field has been increasing linearly since 2016 with more than eight times as many articles in 2022 compared to 2016. Based on our analysis, using a five-phased Innovation-Decision Model, we found that key reasons affecting adoption are: availability of proof-of-concepts, knowledge beyond current best practices, and a strong buy-in from both stakeholders and standardization bodies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Trends and Prospects in Security, Encryption and Encoding)

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24 pages, 1810 KiB

Open AccessReview

A Survey on Moving Target Defense: Intelligently Affordable, Optimized and Self-Adaptive

by Rongbo Sun, Yuefei Zhu, Jinlong Fei and Xingyu Chen

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(9), 5367; https://doi.org/10.3390/app13095367 - 25 Apr 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3254

Abstract

Represented by reactive security defense mechanisms, cyber defense possesses a static, reactive, and deterministic nature, with overwhelmingly high costs to defend against ever-changing attackers. To change this situation, researchers have proposed moving target defense (MTD), which introduces the concept of an attack surface [...] Read more.

Represented by reactive security defense mechanisms, cyber defense possesses a static, reactive, and deterministic nature, with overwhelmingly high costs to defend against ever-changing attackers. To change this situation, researchers have proposed moving target defense (MTD), which introduces the concept of an attack surface to define cyber defense in a brand-new manner, aiming to provide a dynamic, continuous, and proactive defense mechanism. With the increasing use of machine learning in networking, researchers have discovered that MTD techniques based on machine learning can provide omni-bearing defense capabilities and reduce defense costs at multiple levels. However, research in this area remains incomplete and fragmented, and significant progress is yet to be made in constructing a defense mechanism that is both robust and available. Therefore, we conducted a comprehensive survey on MTD research, summarizing the background, design mechanisms, and shortcomings of MTD, as well as relevant features of intelligent MTD that are designed to overcome these limitations. We aim to provide researchers seeking the future development of MTD with insight into building an intelligently affordable, optimized, and self-adaptive defense mechanism. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Trends and Prospects in Security, Encryption and Encoding)

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19 pages, 3287 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Strike: Stream Cipher Based on Stochastic Lightning Strike Behaviour

by Khaled Suwais and Sally Almanasra

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(8), 4669; https://doi.org/10.3390/app13084669 - 7 Apr 2023

Viewed by 1578

Abstract

There is an increasing need for secure and fast encryption algorithms to support applications and communication protocols, and business models. In this paper, we present an alternative stream cipher (Strike) inspired by the stochastic behaviour of lightning strike phenomena. The novelty and originality [...] Read more.

There is an increasing need for secure and fast encryption algorithms to support applications and communication protocols, and business models. In this paper, we present an alternative stream cipher (Strike) inspired by the stochastic behaviour of lightning strike phenomena. The novelty and originality of Strike stem from the utilisation of lightning strike behaviour as a source for generating random keystreams for encryption and decryption. Strike consists of three main functions: a function for setting up the security attributes, a function for generating lightning strikes and converting them to a keystream, and a function for plaintext encryption. The proposed stream cipher was tested against several cryptanalysis and statistical attacks in addition to other performance tests. The results show that Strike achieves high throughput on both high- and low-speed devices. Additionally, security analysis shows that our cipher is resistant to cryptanalysis and statistical attacks. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Trends and Prospects in Security, Encryption and Encoding)

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30 pages, 1681 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Linear Cryptanalysis of Reduced-Round Simeck Using Super Rounds

by Reham Almukhlifi and Poorvi L. Vora

Cryptography 2023, 7(1), 8; https://doi.org/10.3390/cryptography7010008 - 9 Feb 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2541

Abstract

The Simeck family of lightweight block ciphers was proposed by Yang et al. in 2015, which combines the design features of the NSA-designed block ciphers Simon and Speck. Previously, we proposed the use of linear cryptanalysis using super-rounds to increase the efficiency of [...] Read more.

The Simeck family of lightweight block ciphers was proposed by Yang et al. in 2015, which combines the design features of the NSA-designed block ciphers Simon and Speck. Previously, we proposed the use of linear cryptanalysis using super-rounds to increase the efficiency of implementing Matsui’s second algorithm and achieved good results on all variants of Simon. The improved linear attacks result from the observation that, after four rounds of encryption, one bit of the left half of the state of the cipher depends on only 17 key bits (19 key bits for the larger variants of the cipher). We were able to follow a similar approach, in all variants of Simeck, with an improvement in Simeck 32 and Simeck 48 by relaxing the previous constraint of a single active bit, using multiple active bits instead. In this paper we present improved linear attacks against all variants of Simeck: attacks on 19-rounds of Simeck 32/64, 28-rounds of Simeck 48/96, and 34-rounds of Simeck 64/128, often with the direct recovery of the full master key without repeating the attack over multiple rounds. We also verified the results of linear cryptanalysis on 8, 10, and 12 rounds for Simeck 32/64. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Trends and Prospects in Security, Encryption and Encoding)

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12 pages, 1838 KiB

Open AccessArticle

High Throughput PRESENT Cipher Hardware Architecture for the Medical IoT Applications

by Jamunarani Damodharan, Emalda Roslin Susai Michael and Nasir Shaikh-Husin

Cryptography 2023, 7(1), 6; https://doi.org/10.3390/cryptography7010006 - 6 Feb 2023

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3017

Abstract

The Internet of Things (IoT) is an intelligent technology applied to various fields like agriculture, healthcare, automation, and defence. Modern medical electronics is also one such field that relies on IoT. Execution time, data security, power, and hardware utilization are the four significant [...] Read more.

The Internet of Things (IoT) is an intelligent technology applied to various fields like agriculture, healthcare, automation, and defence. Modern medical electronics is also one such field that relies on IoT. Execution time, data security, power, and hardware utilization are the four significant problems that should be addressed in the data communication system between intelligent devices. Due to the risks in the implementation algorithm complexity, certain ciphers are unsuitable for IoT applications. In addition, IoT applications are also implemented on an embedded platform wherein computing resources and memory are limited in number. Here in the research work, a reliable lightweight encryption algorithm with PRESENT has been implemented as a hardware accelerator and optimized for medical IoT-embedded applications. The PRESENT cipher is a reliable, lightweight encryption algorithm in many applications. This paper presents a low latency 32-bit data path of PRESENT cipher architecture that provides high throughput. The proposed hardware architecture has been implemented and tested with XILINX XC7Z030FBG676-2 ZYNQ FPGA board 7000. This work shows an improvement of about 85.54% in throughput with a reasonable trade-off over hardware utilization. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Trends and Prospects in Security, Encryption and Encoding)

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18 pages, 708 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Building Trusted Federated Learning: Key Technologies and Challenges

by Depeng Chen, Xiao Jiang, Hong Zhong and Jie Cui

J. Sens. Actuator Netw. 2023, 12(1), 13; https://doi.org/10.3390/jsan12010013 - 6 Feb 2023

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 4577

Abstract

Federated learning (FL) provides convenience for cross-domain machine learning applications and has been widely studied. However, the original FL is still vulnerable to poisoning and inference attacks, which will hinder the landing application of FL. Therefore, it is essential to design a trustworthy [...] Read more.

Federated learning (FL) provides convenience for cross-domain machine learning applications and has been widely studied. However, the original FL is still vulnerable to poisoning and inference attacks, which will hinder the landing application of FL. Therefore, it is essential to design a trustworthy federation learning (TFL) to eliminate users’ anxiety. In this paper, we aim to provide a well-researched picture of the security and privacy issues in FL that can bridge the gap to TFL. Firstly, we define the desired goals and critical requirements of TFL, observe the FL model from the perspective of the adversaries and extrapolate the roles and capabilities of potential adversaries backward. Subsequently, we summarize the current mainstream attack and defense means and analyze the characteristics of the different methods. Based on a priori knowledge, we propose directions for realizing the future of TFL that deserve attention. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Trends and Prospects in Security, Encryption and Encoding)

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