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Volume 11
Issue 6
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Atmosphere, Volume 11, Issue 6 (June 2020) – 126 articles

Cover Story (view full-size image): In late summer and autumn, Mediterranean coastal regions are regularly affected by small-scale, flood-producing convective systems. The complexity of mesoscale triggering mechanisms, related to low-level temperature gradients, moisture convergence, and topographic effects contributes to limit the predictability of such phenomena. In the present work, a severe convection episode which occurred in Cannes in October 2015 is investigated. The impact of model resolution as well as initial and boundary conditions on simulation is analyzed. Ingesting a high-resolution satellite-derived sea surface temperature field is proven to be beneficial especially when also associated with the most accurate lateral boundary conditions. View this paper.
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24 pages, 2723 KiB  
Article
Large Variations in N2O Fluxes from Bioenergy Crops According to Management Practices and Crop Type
by Fabien Ferchaud, Céline Peyrard, Joël Léonard, Eric Gréhan and Bruno Mary
Atmosphere 2020, 11(6), 675; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos11060675 - 26 Jun 2020
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2839
Abstract
Field N2O emissions are a key point in the evaluation of the greenhouse gas benefits of bioenergy crops. The aim of this study was to investigate N2O fluxes from perennial (miscanthus and switchgrass), semi-perennial (fescue and alfalfa) and annual [...] Read more.
Field N2O emissions are a key point in the evaluation of the greenhouse gas benefits of bioenergy crops. The aim of this study was to investigate N2O fluxes from perennial (miscanthus and switchgrass), semi-perennial (fescue and alfalfa) and annual (sorghum and triticale) bioenergy crops and to analyze the effect of the management of perennials (nitrogen fertilization and/or harvest date). Daily N2O emissions were measured quasi-continuously during at least two years in a long-term experiment, using automated chambers, with 2–5 treatments monitored simultaneously. Cumulative N2O emissions from perennials were strongly affected by management practices: fertilized miscanthus harvested early and unfertilized miscanthus harvested late had systematically much lower emissions than fertilized miscanthus harvested late (50, 160 and 1470 g N2O-N ha−1 year−1, respectively). Fertilized perennials often had similar or higher cumulative emissions than semi-perennial or annual crops. Fluxes from perennial and semi-perennial crops were characterized by long periods with low emissions interspersed with short periods with high emissions. Temperature, water-filled pore space and soil nitrates affected daily emissions but their influence varied between crop types. This study shows the complex interaction between crop type, crop management and climate, which results in large variations in N2O fluxes for a given site. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Understanding, Inventoring and Mitigating N2O Emissions from Managed Land)
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19 pages, 1110 KiB  
Review
Policy Framework for Energy Retrofitting of Built Heritage: A Critical Comparison of UK and Turkey
by Negin Jahed, Yasemin D. Aktaş, Peter Rickaby and Ayşe Güliz Bilgin Altınöz
Atmosphere 2020, 11(6), 674; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos11060674 - 26 Jun 2020
Cited by 14 | Viewed by 4958
Abstract
Energy efficiency is one of the most prominent global challenges of our era. Heritage buildings usually have a poor energy performance, not necessarily because of their intrinsic constructive features but due to their mostly dilapidated condition owed to age and previous damage, exacerbated [...] Read more.
Energy efficiency is one of the most prominent global challenges of our era. Heritage buildings usually have a poor energy performance, not necessarily because of their intrinsic constructive features but due to their mostly dilapidated condition owed to age and previous damage, exacerbated by other factors such as the limited maintenance allowed by the restrictive legal framework and/or residents not being able to afford retrofit. On both national and international levels, energy efficiency measures are considered the key to answering the global challenge of climate change. This article aims to provide a critical discussion of the policy framework for energy retrofitting targeting built heritage in the UK and in Turkey. To this end, the development of guidance and legislation on cultural heritage, energy efficiency and climate change in both countries were thoroughly reviewed, and the retrofit incentives and constraints were determined in order to identify existing policy gaps and potential problems with implementation in the realm of energy retrofitting and climate resiliency of heritage buildings. As a result of a critical comparative analysis, the paper is concluded with suggestions on policy frames for the retrofitting of heritage buildings for improved energy efficiency. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Assessing the Impact of Climate Change on Urban Cultural Heritage)
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14 pages, 5106 KiB  
Article
Strategies for Assimilating High-Density Atmospheric Motion Vectors into a Regional Tropical Cyclone Forecast Model (HWRF)
by William E. Lewis, Christopher S. Velden and David Stettner
Atmosphere 2020, 11(6), 673; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos11060673 - 26 Jun 2020
Cited by 15 | Viewed by 3037
Abstract
In recent years, atmospheric numerical modeling frameworks and satellite observing systems have both undergone significant advances. While these developments offer considerable potential for improving forecasts of high-impact weather events such as tropical cyclones (TC), much work remains to be done regarding the targeted [...] Read more.
In recent years, atmospheric numerical modeling frameworks and satellite observing systems have both undergone significant advances. While these developments offer considerable potential for improving forecasts of high-impact weather events such as tropical cyclones (TC), much work remains to be done regarding the targeted processing and optimal use of observations now becoming available with high spatiotemporal resolution. Using the 2019 version of NCEP’s HWRF model, we explore several different strategies for the assimilation of TC-scale, high-density atmospheric motion vectors (AMVs) derived from the new-generation GOES-R series of geostationary satellites. Using 2017’s Atlantic Hurricane Irma as a case study, we examine the HWRF forecast impacts of observation pre-processing, including thinning and adjustments to observation errors. It is demonstrated that enhanced vortex-scale GOES-16 AMVs contribute to notable improvements in HWRF track forecast error compared to a baseline control experiment that does not incorporate the high-density AMVs. Impacts on TC intensity and structure (i.e., wind radii) forecast errors are less robust, but results from the optimization experiments suggest that further work (both with regard to data assimilation strategies and advancements in the methods themselves) should lead to improvements in these forecast variables as well. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modeling and Data Assimilation for Tropical Cyclone Forecasts)
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17 pages, 6222 KiB  
Article
Role of Horizontal Eddy Diffusivity within the Canopy on Fire Spread
by Yana Bebieva, Julia Oliveto, Bryan Quaife, Nicholas S. Skowronski, Warren E. Heilman and Kevin Speer
Atmosphere 2020, 11(6), 672; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos11060672 - 26 Jun 2020
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3121
Abstract
Wind profile observations are used to estimate turbulent mixing in the atmospheric boundary layer from 1 m up to 300 m height in two locations of pine forests characteristic of the southeast US region, and to 30 m height at one location in [...] Read more.
Wind profile observations are used to estimate turbulent mixing in the atmospheric boundary layer from 1 m up to 300 m height in two locations of pine forests characteristic of the southeast US region, and to 30 m height at one location in the northeast. Basic turbulence characteristics of the boundary layers above and within the canopy were measured near prescribed fires for time periods spanning the burns. Together with theoretical models for the mean horizontal velocity and empirical relations between mean flow and variance, we derive the lateral diffusivity using Taylor’s frozen turbulence hypothesis in the thin surface-fuel layer. This parameter is used in a simple 1D model to predict the spread of surface fires in different wind conditions. Initial assessments of sensitivity of the fire spread rates to the lateral diffusivity are made. The lateral diffusivity with and without fire-induced wind is estimated and associated fire spread rates are explored. Our results support the conceptual framework that eddy dynamics in the fuel layer is set by larger eddies developed in the canopy layer aloft. The presence of fire modifies the wind, hence spread rate, depending on the fire intensity. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Atmospheric Turbulence Processes and Wildland Fires)
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18 pages, 1507 KiB  
Article
Robust Decadal Hydroclimate Predictions for Northern Italy Based on a Twofold Statistical Approach
by Sara Rubinetti, Carla Taricco, Silvia Alessio, Angelo Rubino, Ilaria Bizzarri and Davide Zanchettin
Atmosphere 2020, 11(6), 671; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos11060671 - 25 Jun 2020
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3295
Abstract
The Mediterranean area belongs to the regions most exposed to hydroclimatic changes, with a likely increase in frequency and duration of droughts in the last decades. However, many climate records like, e.g., North Italian precipitation and river discharge records, indicate that significant decadal [...] Read more.
The Mediterranean area belongs to the regions most exposed to hydroclimatic changes, with a likely increase in frequency and duration of droughts in the last decades. However, many climate records like, e.g., North Italian precipitation and river discharge records, indicate that significant decadal variability is often superposed or even dominates long-term hydrological trends. The capability to accurately predict such decadal changes is, therefore, of utmost environmental and social importance. Here, we present a twofold decadal forecast of Po River (Northern Italy) discharge obtained with a statistical approach consisting of the separate application and cross-validation of autoregressive models and neural networks. Both methods are applied to each significant variability component extracted from the raw discharge time series using Singular Spectrum Analysis, and the final forecast is obtained by merging the predictions of the individual components. The obtained 25-year forecasts robustly indicate a prominent dry period in the late 2020s/early 2030s. Our prediction provides information of great value for hydrological management, and a target for current and future near-term numerical hydrological predictions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning: Application in Predictive Hydrological Models)
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15 pages, 4158 KiB  
Article
Characteristics of DSD Bulk Parameters: Implication for Radar Rain Retrieval
by Liang Liao, Robert Meneghini, Toshio Iguchi and Ali Tokay
Atmosphere 2020, 11(6), 670; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos11060670 - 25 Jun 2020
Cited by 19 | Viewed by 3627
Abstract
With the use of 213,456 one-minute measured data of droplet-size distribution (DSD) of rain collected during several National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)-sponsored field campaigns, the relationships between rainfall rate R, mass-weighted diameter Dm and normalized intercept parameter Nw of the [...] Read more.
With the use of 213,456 one-minute measured data of droplet-size distribution (DSD) of rain collected during several National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)-sponsored field campaigns, the relationships between rainfall rate R, mass-weighted diameter Dm and normalized intercept parameter Nw of the gamma DSD are studied. It is found, based on the simulations of the gamma DSD model, that R, Dm and Nw are closely interrelated, and that the ratio of R to Nw is solely a function of Dm, independent of the shape factor μ of the gamma distribution. Furthermore, the model-produced ratio agrees well with those from the DSD data. When a power-law equation is applied to fit the model data, we have: R = aN w D m b , where a = 1.588 × 10 − 4 , b = 4.706 . Analysis of two-parameter relationships such as R–Dm, Nw–R and Nw–Dm reveals that R and Dm are moderately correlated while Nw and Dm are negatively correlated. Nw and R, however, are uncorrelated. The gamma DSD model also reveals that variation of R–Dm relation is caused primarily by Nw. For the application of the Ku- and Ka-band dual-frequency radar for the retrieval of the DSD bulk parameters as well as the specific radar attenuations, the study is carried out to relate the dual-frequency radar reflectivity factors to the DSD and attenuation parameters. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Measurement and Modeling of the Precipitation Particle Size Distribution)
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15 pages, 2680 KiB  
Article
Time-Dependent Downscaling of PM2.5 Predictions from CAMS Air Quality Models to Urban Monitoring Sites in Budapest
by Adrienn Varga-Balogh, Ádám Leelőssy, István Lagzi and Róbert Mészáros
Atmosphere 2020, 11(6), 669; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos11060669 - 25 Jun 2020
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 4222
Abstract
Budapest, the capital of Hungary, has been facing serious air pollution episodes in the heating season similar to other metropolises. In the city a dense urban air quality monitoring network is available; however, air quality prediction is still challenging. For this purpose, 24-h [...] Read more.
Budapest, the capital of Hungary, has been facing serious air pollution episodes in the heating season similar to other metropolises. In the city a dense urban air quality monitoring network is available; however, air quality prediction is still challenging. For this purpose, 24-h PM2.5 forecasts obtained from seven individual models of the Copernicus Atmosphere Monitoring Service (CAMS) were downscaled by using hourly measurements at six urban monitoring sites in Budapest for the heating season of 2018–2019. A 10-day long training period was applied to fit spatially consistent model weights in a linear combination of CAMS models for each day, and the 10-day additive bias was also corrected. Results were compared to the CAMS ensemble median, the 10-day bias-corrected CAMS ensemble median, and the 24-h persistence. Downscaling reduced the root mean square error (RMSE) by 1.4 µg/m3 for the heating season and by 4.3 µg/m3 for episodes compared to the CAMS ensemble, mainly by eliminating the general underestimation of PM2.5 peaks. As a side-effect, an overestimation was introduced in rapidly clearing conditions. Although the bias-corrected ensemble and model fusion had similar overall performance, the latter was more efficient in episodes. Downscaling of the CAMS models was found to be capable and necessary to capture high wintertime PM2.5 concentrations for the short-range air quality prediction in Budapest. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Air Quality)
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19 pages, 7830 KiB  
Article
Objective Identification and Multi-Scale Controlling Factors of Extreme Heat-Wave Events in Southern China
by Wenjiang Chen, Joshua-Xiouhua Fu and Guoping Li
Atmosphere 2020, 11(6), 668; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos11060668 - 23 Jun 2020
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2617
Abstract
Southern China (SC) is often subjected to the impacts of extreme heat-wave (EHW) events with hot days covering large areas and lasting extended periods in the boreal summer. The present study explores new objective identification methods of the EHW events and reveals the [...] Read more.
Southern China (SC) is often subjected to the impacts of extreme heat-wave (EHW) events with hot days covering large areas and lasting extended periods in the boreal summer. The present study explores new objective identification methods of the EHW events and reveals the controlling factors of different spatial-temporal variations in shaping the EHW events over SC from 2000 to 2017 with in-situ observations and latest reanalysis. A compound index of the EHW (with impact area, duration, and magnitude) was defined to quantify the overall intensity of the EHW events in SC. It was found that synoptic variability and 10–30-day intra-seasonal variability (ISV) induce the onsets of the EHW events, while 30–90-day ISV shapes the durations. An innovative daily compound index was introduced to track the outbreak of the EHW events. The occurrences of the EHW in SC are coincident with the arrivals of intra-seasonal signals (e.g., the anomalies of outgoing long-wave radiation (OLR) and 500 hPa geopotential height) propagating from the east and south. About 12 days before the onset of the EHW in SC, the 10–30-day positive anomalies of 500 hPa geopotential height and OLR appear near the equatorial western Pacific, which then propagate northwestward to initiate the EHW in SC. At the same time, the 30–90-day suppressed phase propagates northeastward from the Indian Ocean to the SC to sustain the EHW events. On the interannual time scale, it was found that the EHW events in SC occurred in those years with robust warming of the western North Pacific in early summer (May and June) and warming of the equatorial eastern Pacific in the preceding winter (December, January, and February). An interannual sea surface temperature anomalous (SSTA) index, which adds together the SSTA over the above two regions, serves as a very useful seasonal predictor for the EHW occurrences in SC at least one-month ahead. Full article
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17 pages, 1696 KiB  
Article
Odor Characteristics and Concentration of Malodorous Chemical Compounds Emitted from a Combined Sewer System in Korea
by Sangjin Park
Atmosphere 2020, 11(6), 667; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos11060667 - 22 Jun 2020
Cited by 19 | Viewed by 4065
Abstract
(1) Objectives: This study was carried out to investigate the characteristics of odors emitted from a combined sewer for the abatement of combined sewer odor. (2) Methods: The odor samples emitted from the combined sewer were collected at 14 sites, and the concentrations [...] Read more.
(1) Objectives: This study was carried out to investigate the characteristics of odors emitted from a combined sewer for the abatement of combined sewer odor. (2) Methods: The odor samples emitted from the combined sewer were collected at 14 sites, and the concentrations of 13 malodorous chemicals were determined by the instrumental analysis such as gas chromatography. To understand the sensory characteristic of the combined sewer odor, the on-site odor intensity (OOI) was evaluated by the direct sensory method using the human olfactory sensitivity of panelists with a normal sense of smell. The primary odor-causing compounds with high contribution were evaluated based on the converted odor concentration (COC), which was calculated by using the compound concentration and threshold limit value. Since the direct sensory method requires a lot of manpower and time, the converted odor intensity method (COI) calculated by the malodorous compound concentration was reviewed and compared with other cases. (3) Results: As a result of the instrumental analysis, four compounds which were higher than other compounds, showed an average of 325 ppb for H2S, 121 ppb for NH3, 102 ppb for CH3SH, and 108 ppb for toluene. The rest of the compounds appeared low, below 60 ppb. Based on the result of evaluating the COC, three compounds which are H2S, CH3SH, and (CH3)3N appeared to be compounds with a high contribution to combined sewer odor. Especially, it was estimated that H2S was the main odor-causing compound in this study. The on-site odor intensity of the combined sewer as judged by 5 panelists appeared to be 2.8 degrees on average, the same as COI. The correlation between the odor intensity and the H2S concentration in the combined sewer showed as the following equation: COI, degree = 1.0757 × log (H2S conc., ppb) + 0.3696. (4) Conclusions: In Korea, the odor emission standard in the atmosphere including sewer odor has adopted 20 ppb for H2S, and less than 2 degrees for odor intensity in the non-industrial area. However, since the mean observed odor intensity was 2.8 degrees and the concentration of H2S was also 325 ppb on average in this study, it was concluded that countermeasures should be prepared to reduce the complaints due to combined sewer odor in residential areas. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Odour: Emission, Dispersion, and the Assessment of Annoyance)
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17 pages, 3400 KiB  
Article
Evaluation of Hurricane Harvey (2017) Rainfall in Deterministic and Probabilistic HWRF Forecasts
by Mu-Chieh Ko, Frank D. Marks, Ghassan J. Alaka, Jr. and Sundararaman G. Gopalakrishnan
Atmosphere 2020, 11(6), 666; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos11060666 - 22 Jun 2020
Cited by 15 | Viewed by 3723
Abstract
Rainfall forecast performance was evaluated for the first time for the Hurricane Weather Research and Forecasting (HWRF) model. This study focused on HWRF performance in predicting rainfall from Hurricane Harvey in 2017. In particular, two configurations of the 2017 version of HWRF were [...] Read more.
Rainfall forecast performance was evaluated for the first time for the Hurricane Weather Research and Forecasting (HWRF) model. This study focused on HWRF performance in predicting rainfall from Hurricane Harvey in 2017. In particular, two configurations of the 2017 version of HWRF were investigated: a deterministic version of the Basin-scale HWRF (HB17) and an ensemble version of the operational HWRF (H17E). This study found that HB17 generated reasonable rainfall patterns and rain-rate distributions for Hurricane Harvey, in part due to accurate track forecasts. However, the estimated rain rates near the storm center (within 50 km) were slightly overestimated. In the rainband region (150 to 300 km), HB17 reproduced heavy rain rates and underestimated light rain rates. The accumulated rainfall pattern successfully captured Harvey’s intense outer rainband with adequate spatial displacement. In addition, the performance of H17E on probabilistic rainfall has shown that the ensemble forecasts can potentially increase the accuracy of the predicted locations for extreme rainfall. Moreover, the study also indicated the importance of high-resolution dynamical models for rainfall predictions. Although statistical models can generate the overall rainfall patterns along a track, extreme rainfall events produced from outer rainbands can only be forecasted by numerical models, such as HWRF. Accordingly, the HWRF models have the capability of simulating reasonable quantitative precipitation forecasts and providing essential rainfall guidance in order to further reduce loss of life and cost to the economy. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modeling and Data Assimilation for Tropical Cyclone Forecasts)
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35 pages, 1115 KiB  
Article
Statistical Learning of the Worst Regional Smog Extremes with Dynamic Conditional Modeling
by Lu Deng, Mengxin Yu and Zhengjun Zhang
Atmosphere 2020, 11(6), 665; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos11060665 - 22 Jun 2020
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3352
Abstract
This paper is concerned with the statistical learning of the extreme smog (PM 2.5 ) dynamics of a vast region in China. Differently from classical extreme value modeling approaches, this paper develops a dynamic model of conditional, exponentiated Weibull distribution modeling and analysis [...] Read more.
This paper is concerned with the statistical learning of the extreme smog (PM 2.5 ) dynamics of a vast region in China. Differently from classical extreme value modeling approaches, this paper develops a dynamic model of conditional, exponentiated Weibull distribution modeling and analysis of regional smog extremes, particularly for the worst scenarios observed in each day. To gain higher modeling efficiency, weather factors will be introduced in an enhanced model. The proposed model and the enhanced model are illustrated with temporal/spatial maxima of hourly PM 2.5 observations each day from smog monitoring stations located in the Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei geographical region between 2014 and 2019. The proposed model performs more precisely on fittings compared with other previous models dealing with maxima with autoregressive parameter dynamics, and provides relatively accurate prediction as well. The findings enhance the understanding of how severe extreme smog scenarios can be and provide useful information for the central/local government to conduct coordinated PM 2.5 control and treatment. For completeness, probabilistic properties of the proposed model were investigated. Statistical estimation based on the conditional maximum likelihood principle is established. To demonstrate the estimation and inference efficiency of studies, extensive simulations were also implemented. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Statistical Approaches to Investigate Air Quality)
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10 pages, 3708 KiB  
Article
The Polar Vortex and Extreme Weather: The Beast from the East in Winter 2018
by James Overland, Richard Hall, Edward Hanna, Alexey Karpechko, Timo Vihma, Muyin Wang and Xiangdong Zhang
Atmosphere 2020, 11(6), 664; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos11060664 - 22 Jun 2020
Cited by 25 | Viewed by 7951
Abstract
Public attention has recently focused on high-impact extreme weather events in midlatitudes that originate in the sub-Arctic. We investigate movements of the stratospheric polar vortex (SPV) and related changes in lower atmospheric circulation during the February-March 2018 “Beast from the East” cold winter [...] Read more.
Public attention has recently focused on high-impact extreme weather events in midlatitudes that originate in the sub-Arctic. We investigate movements of the stratospheric polar vortex (SPV) and related changes in lower atmospheric circulation during the February-March 2018 “Beast from the East” cold winter event that dramatically affected much of Europe and north-central North America. This study demonstrates that the movement of the SPV is a key linkage in late winter subarctic and northern midlatitude extreme weather events. February–March 2018 saw two types of subarctic-midlatitude weather connections. In the first type, the SPV was displaced from the pole to lower latitudes over North America in February and then was found over northern Siberia in March. Mid-February and mid-March are examples of persistent near vertically aligned geopotential height structures of the atmospheric circulation. These structures over North America and Eurasia advected cold Arctic air southward. The second type of cold surface event was associated with a weak regional SPV and a sudden stratospheric warming event over Europe during the second half of February. These late winter linkage events that arise through dynamic instabilities of the SPV are more common in the last decade, but the potential role of enhanced Arctic amplification is uncertain. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Impacts of Climate Change on Atmospheric Circulations)
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13 pages, 1737 KiB  
Article
Model Hyetographs of Short-Term Rainfall for Wrocław in the Perspective of 2050
by Katarzyna Wartalska and Andrzej Kotowski
Atmosphere 2020, 11(6), 663; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos11060663 - 21 Jun 2020
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2595
Abstract
One of the most important problems while modeling stormwater drainage systems is the choice of rainfall scenario, which will take into account the real rainfall distribution over time. This problem is particularly significant due to the climate change observed in recent decades, manifested, [...] Read more.
One of the most important problems while modeling stormwater drainage systems is the choice of rainfall scenario, which will take into account the real rainfall distribution over time. This problem is particularly significant due to the climate change observed in recent decades, manifested, among others, in the increase in the precipitation intensities or changes in their structure. Taking into account these forecasts is essential to safely design sewer systems and their proper operation. The work aims to verify the Euler type II standard rainfall used so far to model sewage systems in Poland and to develop the forecasted form of this pattern in the perspective of 2050. Precipitation data from measurement stations in Wrocław were used as research material. The prediction model of maximum rainfall amounts allowed to determine the forecasted increase in intensities of short-term rainfall (for the occurrence frequencies recommended by Standard EN 752:2017 for the dimensioning and modeling of sewage systems). On this basis, model hyetographs forecasted for 2050 were prepared for Wrocław. Their choice—as a future rainfall load in hydrodynamic modeling—will allow one to meet the requirements for the frequency of flooding occurrence from sewer systems and their safe operation over several decades. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Approaches in Design Rainfall Calculations in the Aspect of Storm Water Management and Urban Flood Risk Management)
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16 pages, 3889 KiB  
Article
Estimation of Greenhouse Gases Emitted from Energy Industry (Oil Refining and Electricity Generation) in Iraq Using IPCC Methodology
by Bassim Mohammed Hashim, Maitham Abdullah Sultan, Ali Al Maliki and Nadhir Al-Ansari
Atmosphere 2020, 11(6), 662; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos11060662 - 21 Jun 2020
Cited by 26 | Viewed by 6098
Abstract
The energy sector is integral to the wellbeing of the entire Iraqi economy and will remain so well into the future. In the current study, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) methodology was used to estimate CO2, CH4, [...] Read more.
The energy sector is integral to the wellbeing of the entire Iraqi economy and will remain so well into the future. In the current study, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) methodology was used to estimate CO2, CH4, and N2O emissions from oil refining and electricity generation in Iraq for a period exceeding 25 years. From 1990, Iraq experienced two wars and an economic siege, then faced political, social, and security instability, which affected its energy production. The results showed that the CO2, CH4, and N2O emissions from the oil refining and electricity generation in Iraq experienced a sharp decline in the years 1991, 2003, and 2007 due to a decrease in the production of oil derivatives in refineries, according to political and security conditions. The total CO2 emissions from the types of fuel used in electricity generation in Iraq was approximately 14,000 Gg and 58,000 Gg in 1990 and 2017, respectively. The increase in CO2 emissions was greater than 300% between 1990 and 2017. The continued use of poor types of fuel, such as fuel oil and crude oil, will lead to an increase in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from these sources, and higher levels of environmental pollution. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Air Quality)
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11 pages, 1003 KiB  
Article
A Novel Method for Carbonate Quantification in Atmospheric Particulate Matter
by Denise C. Napolitano, Hilairy E. Hartnett and Pierre Herckes
Atmosphere 2020, 11(6), 661; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos11060661 - 20 Jun 2020
Viewed by 3261
Abstract
Inorganic carbonate can be an important component of atmospheric particulate matter in arid environments where mineral dust components contribute significantly to air particulate matter. Carbonate carbon (CC) is only rarely quantified in atmospheric studies and methods to quantify carbonate in atmospheric samples are [...] Read more.
Inorganic carbonate can be an important component of atmospheric particulate matter in arid environments where mineral dust components contribute significantly to air particulate matter. Carbonate carbon (CC) is only rarely quantified in atmospheric studies and methods to quantify carbonate in atmospheric samples are rare. In this manuscript, we present a novel protocol for quantifying carbonate carbon in atmospheric particulate matter samples, through the acidification of aerosol filters at ambient pressure and temperature and subsequent measurement of carbon dioxide (CO2) released upon acidification. This method is applicable to a variety of filter media used in air pollution studies, such as Teflon, cellulose, or glass fiber filters. The method allows the customization of the filter area used for analysis (up to 24 cm2) so that sufficient CO2 can be detected when released and to assure that the sample aliquot is representative of the whole filter. The resulting detection limits can be as low as 0.12 µg/cm2. The analysis of a known amount of sodium bicarbonate applied to a filter resulted in a relative error within 15% of the known mass of bicarbonate when measured 20 min after acidification. A particulate matter sample with aerodynamic diameter larger than 2.5 µm (PM>2.5) collected via cascade impaction on a high-volume aerosol sampler yielded good precision, with a CC concentration of 4.4 ± 0.3 µgC/cm2 for six replicates. The precision, accuracy, and reproducibility of this method of CC measurement make it a good alternative to existing quantification methods. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chemical Analysis Methods for Particle-Phase Pollutants)
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28 pages, 9047 KiB  
Article
Assessing iMET-XQ Performance and Optimal Placement on a Small Off-the-Shelf, Rotary-Wing UAV, as a Function of Atmospheric Conditions
by Sytske K. Kimball, Carlos J. Montalvo and Madhuri S. Mulekar
Atmosphere 2020, 11(6), 660; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos11060660 - 20 Jun 2020
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 4296
Abstract
The accuracy and precision of iMET-XQ (InterMET Inc., Grand Rapids, MI, USA) temperature measurements in ten different locations on an off-the shelf rotary-wing unmanned aerial vehicle (rw-UAV) were assessed, as a function of atmospheric conditions. The rw-UAV hovered near an instrumented South Alabama [...] Read more.
The accuracy and precision of iMET-XQ (InterMET Inc., Grand Rapids, MI, USA) temperature measurements in ten different locations on an off-the shelf rotary-wing unmanned aerial vehicle (rw-UAV) were assessed, as a function of atmospheric conditions. The rw-UAV hovered near an instrumented South Alabama Mesonet tower. The mean ± standard deviation of all the temperature differences between the tower and the ten iMET-XQ sensors for all experiments are −0.23 °C ±0.24 °C. Both the UAV and the environment influence the accuracy and precision of the iMET-XQ temperature measurements. Heat generated by the electronic components within the UAV body has a significant influence on the iMET-XQ temperature measurements, regardless of solar radiation conditions, and is highly dependent on wind direction. Electronic components within the UAV body heat up and can cause sensors downwind from the UAV body to record temperatures that are too warm, even if the sensors are aspirated by propeller wash. iMET-XQ sensors placed on rotor arms not near UAV body heat sources, and properly aspirated by propeller wash, perform well. Measurements from iMET-XQ sensors suspended below the UAV are also accurate. When using an off-the-shelf UAV for atmospheric temperature sensing, the electronic components inside the body of the UAV must be properly located. It is recommended that multiple sensors are placed on the UAV. Sensor redundancy will mitigate data loss in case of malfunction during flight and the identification of poorly performing sensors. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Applications of Small Unmanned Aerial Systems (sUAS) in Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics)
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11 pages, 1334 KiB  
Article
On the Buoyancy Subrange in Stratified Turbulence
by Victor Avsarkisov
Atmosphere 2020, 11(6), 659; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos11060659 - 19 Jun 2020
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3889
Abstract
This study is motivated by the importance of the stratified turbulence in geophysical flows. We present a theoretical analysis of the buoyancy subrange based on the theory of strongly stratified turbulence. Some important turbulent scales and their relations are explored. Scaling constants of [...] Read more.
This study is motivated by the importance of the stratified turbulence in geophysical flows. We present a theoretical analysis of the buoyancy subrange based on the theory of strongly stratified turbulence. Some important turbulent scales and their relations are explored. Scaling constants of the buoyancy subrange scaling laws for both kinetic and potential energy spectra are derived and analyzed. It is found that these constants are functions of the horizontal Froude number F r h . For the potential energy spectrum, the scaling constant also depends on the turbulent flux coefficient of Γ . Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Atmospheric Techniques, Instruments, and Modeling)
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12 pages, 3669 KiB  
Article
Evolution Characteristics during Initial Stage of Triggered Lightning Based on Directly Measured Current
by Zefang Chen, Yang Zhang, Yanfeng Fan, Jingxuan Wang, Dong Zheng, Xiangpeng Fan, Liangtao Xu, Weitao Lyu and Yijun Zhang
Atmosphere 2020, 11(6), 658; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos11060658 - 19 Jun 2020
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2020
Abstract
The initiation of a leader is an important lightning discharge process, but how an upward positive leader (UPL) initiates is still not fully understood. The evolution characteristics of a UPL during its initial stage was systematically studied based on directly measured current data [...] Read more.
The initiation of a leader is an important lightning discharge process, but how an upward positive leader (UPL) initiates is still not fully understood. The evolution characteristics of a UPL during its initial stage was systematically studied based on directly measured current data of 14 triggered lightning events in 2019. It was found that the initial stage of triggered lightning can be divided into two types: a single initial process form and a multiple initial process form, with percentages of 64.29% and 35.71%, respectively. Compared with the former, the latter usually lasts longer, and the corresponding lightning is often triggered under a lower ground-level quasi-static electric field. In each initial process, precursor current pulses (PCPs), PCP clusters and initial precursor current pulse (IPCPs) are typical current waveforms, and the pulse durations and transferred charges of PCPs increase linearly with time. However, in the multiple initial process form, the pulse durations and transferred charges of PCPs will reduce significantly after each previous initial process and then continue to increase in the following initial process. In each initial process, when the pulse duration and transferred charge of a PCP increase to a certain extent, PCP clusters and IPCPs begin to appear. For the emergence of PCP clusters, the average values of the threshold are 3.48 μs and 19.53 μC, respectively. For the occurrence of IPCPs, the corresponding values are 4.69 μs and 27.23 μC, respectively. The average values of pulse durations and transferred charges of IPCPs are larger than those of PCP clusters. Compared with adjacent PCP clusters, IPCPs contain more pulses, with a critical range of 6–7. IPCPs also last longer, and have a critical range of 138–198 μs. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Meteorology)
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15 pages, 8113 KiB  
Article
Improvement of the Numerical Tropical Cyclone Prediction System at the Central Weather Bureau of Taiwan: TWRF (Typhoon WRF)
by Ling-Feng Hsiao, Der-Song Chen, Jing-Shan Hong, Tien-Chiang Yeh and Chin-Tzu Fong
Atmosphere 2020, 11(6), 657; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos11060657 - 19 Jun 2020
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 4982
Abstract
Typhoon WRF (TWRF) based on the Advanced Research Weather Research and Forecasting Model (ARW WRF) was operational at the Central Weather Bureau (CWB) for tropical cyclone (TC) predictions since 2010 (named TWRF V1). CWB has committed to improve this regional model, aiming to [...] Read more.
Typhoon WRF (TWRF) based on the Advanced Research Weather Research and Forecasting Model (ARW WRF) was operational at the Central Weather Bureau (CWB) for tropical cyclone (TC) predictions since 2010 (named TWRF V1). CWB has committed to improve this regional model, aiming to increase the model predictability toward typhoons over East Asia. In 2016, an upgraded version designed to replace TWRF V1 became operational (named TWRF V2). Compared with V1, which has triple-nested meshes with coarser resolution (45/15/5 km), V2 increased the model resolution to 15/3 km. Since V1 and V2 were maintained in parallel from 2016 to 2018, this study utilized the real-time forecasts to investigate the impact of model resolution on TC prediction. Statistical measures pointed out the superiority of the high-resolution model on TC prediction. The forecast performance was also found competitive with that of two leading global models. The case study further pointed out, with the higher resolution, the model not only advanced the prediction on the TC track and inner core structure but also improved the representativeness of the complex terrain. Overall, the high-resolution model can better handle the so-called terrain phase-lock effect and, therefore, improve the TC quantitative precipitation forecast over the complex Taiwanese terrain. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modeling and Data Assimilation for Tropical Cyclone Forecasts)
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24 pages, 4792 KiB  
Article
Elevation Effects on Air Temperature in a Topographically Complex Mountain Valley in the Spanish Pyrenees
by Francisco Navarro-Serrano, Juan Ignacio López-Moreno, Cesar Azorin-Molina, Esteban Alonso-González, Marina Aznarez-Balta, Samuel T. Buisán and Jesús Revuelto
Atmosphere 2020, 11(6), 656; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos11060656 - 19 Jun 2020
Cited by 15 | Viewed by 5360
Abstract
Air temperature changes as a function of elevation were analyzed in a valley of the Spanish Pyrenees. We analyzed insolation, topography and meteorological conditions in order to understand how complex topoclimatic environments develop. Clustering techniques were used to define vertical patterns of air [...] Read more.
Air temperature changes as a function of elevation were analyzed in a valley of the Spanish Pyrenees. We analyzed insolation, topography and meteorological conditions in order to understand how complex topoclimatic environments develop. Clustering techniques were used to define vertical patterns of air temperature covering more than 1000 m of vertical elevation change. Ten locations from the bottom of the valley to the summits were monitored from September 2016 to June 2019. The results show that (i) night-time lapse rates were between −4 and −2 °C km−1, while in the daytime they were from −6 to −4 °C km−1, due to temperature inversions and topography. Daily maximum temperature lapse rates were steeper from March to July, and daily minimum temperatures were weaker from June to August, and in December. (ii) Different insolation exposure within and between the two analyzed slopes strongly influenced diurnal air temperatures, creating deviations from the general lapse rates. (iii) Usually, two cluster patterns were found (i.e., weak and steep), which were associated with stable and unstable weather conditions, respectively, in addition to high-low atmospheric pressure and low-high relative humidity. The results will have direct applications in disciplines that depend on air temperature estimations (e.g., snow studies, water resources and sky tourism, among others). Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Climatological and Hydrological Processes in Mountain Regions)
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14 pages, 3681 KiB  
Article
The Optical Properties of Aerosols at the Summit of Mount Tai in May and June and the Retrieval of the Complex Refractive Index
by Dapeng Zhao, Yan Yin, Min Zhang, Honglei Wang, Chunsong Lu, Liang Yuan and Shuangshuang Shi
Atmosphere 2020, 11(6), 655; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos11060655 - 19 Jun 2020
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3553
Abstract
To study the optical properties of background atmospheric aerosols in East China, we carried out observations of the physical, chemical and optical properties of atmospheric aerosols at the summit of Mount Tai (Mt. Tai, 1533.7 m above sea level) from 13 May to [...] Read more.
To study the optical properties of background atmospheric aerosols in East China, we carried out observations of the physical, chemical and optical properties of atmospheric aerosols at the summit of Mount Tai (Mt. Tai, 1533.7 m above sea level) from 13 May to 25 June 2017. The results show that the average scattering coefficient ( σ sca , 550 ) at 550 nm of the aerosols at the summit of Mt. Tai is 40.3 Mm−1, and the average absorption coefficient ( σ abs , 550 ) at 550 nm is 16.0 Mm−1. The complex refractive index of aerosols is a key parameter for aerosol retrieval and modeling. There are few studies on the equivalent complex refractive index of aerosol in the Taishan area. We calculated the aerosol equivalent complex refractive index using the observed aerosol scattering coefficients, absorption coefficients and particle size distribution data, providing more data support for future modeling in this region. The real part (n) of the complex refractive index at 550 nm of aerosol ranges from 1.31 to 1.98 (mostly under 1.50), with an average value of 1.38, while the imaginary part (k) ranges from 0.014 to 0.251 (less than 0.10 for over 95% samples), with an average value of 0.040. The analysis of the n and k of the aerosol average complex refractive index shows that the scattering properties of the aerosols at the summit of Mt. Tai are relatively weak and the absorption properties are relatively strong when compared with those of other kinds of aerosols. The k of the aerosol complex refractive index at the summit of Mt. Tai has strong correlations with the wind speed, temperature, as revealed by the correlation analysis. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Aerosols)
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14 pages, 3069 KiB  
Article
Estimating the Effect of Radiative Feedback Uncertainties on Climate Response to Changes in the Concentration of Stratospheric Aerosols
by Sergei Soldatenko
Atmosphere 2020, 11(6), 654; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos11060654 - 19 Jun 2020
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2746
Abstract
Using the two-box energy balance model (EBM), we explore the climate system response to radiative forcing generated by variations in the concentrations of stratospheric aerosols and estimate the effect of uncertainties in radiative feedbacks on changes in global mean surface temperature anomaly used [...] Read more.
Using the two-box energy balance model (EBM), we explore the climate system response to radiative forcing generated by variations in the concentrations of stratospheric aerosols and estimate the effect of uncertainties in radiative feedbacks on changes in global mean surface temperature anomaly used as an indicator of the response of the climate system to external radiative perturbations. Radiative forcing generated by stratospheric sulfate aerosols from the second-largest volcanic eruption in the 20th century, the Mount Pinatubo eruption in June 1991, was chosen for this research. The global mean surface temperature response to a specified change in radiative forcing is estimated as a convolution of the derived impulse response function corresponding to EBM with a function that describes the temporal change in radiative forcing. The influence of radiative feedback uncertainties on changes in the global mean surface temperature is estimated using several “versions” of the EBM. The parameters for different “versions” were identified by applying a specific procedure for calibrating the two-box EBM parameters using the results of climate change simulations conducted with coupled atmosphere–ocean general circulation models from the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5). Changes in the global mean surface temperature caused by stratospheric aerosol forcing are found to be highly sensitive not only to radiative feedbacks but also to climate system inertia defined by the effective heat capacity of the atmosphere–land–ocean mixed layer system, as well as to deep-ocean heat uptake. The results obtained have direct implications for a better understanding of how uncertainties in climate feedbacks, climate system inertia and deep-ocean heat uptake affect climate change modelling. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Atmospheric and Ocean Optics: Atmospheric Physics II)
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17 pages, 3891 KiB  
Article
Formation of Multilayered Sporadic E under an Influence of Atmospheric Gravity Waves (AGWs)
by Goderdzi G. Didebulidze, Giorgi Dalakishvili and Maya Todua
Atmosphere 2020, 11(6), 653; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos11060653 - 19 Jun 2020
Cited by 20 | Viewed by 2590
Abstract
The formation of multilayered sporadic E by atmospheric gravity waves (AGWs), propagating in the mid-latitude lower thermosphere, is shown theoretically and numerically. AGWs with a vertical wavelength smaller than the width of the lower thermosphere lead to the appearance of vertical drift velocity [...] Read more.
The formation of multilayered sporadic E by atmospheric gravity waves (AGWs), propagating in the mid-latitude lower thermosphere, is shown theoretically and numerically. AGWs with a vertical wavelength smaller than the width of the lower thermosphere lead to the appearance of vertical drift velocity nodes (regions where the ions’ vertical drift velocity, caused by these waves, is zero) of heavy metallic ions (Fe+). The distance between the nearest nodes is close to the AGWs’ vertical wavelength. When the divergence of the ion vertical drift velocity at its nodes has a minimal negative value, then these charged particles can accumulate into Es-type thin layers and the formation of multilayered sporadic E is possible. We showed the importance of the ions’ ambipolar diffusion in the formation of Es layers and control of their densities. Oblique downward or upward propagation of AGWs causes downward or upward motion of the ion vertical drift velocity nodes by the vertical propagation phase velocity of these waves. In this case, the formed Es layers also descend or move upward with the same phase velocity. The condition, when the horizontal component of AGWs’ intrinsic phase velocity (phase velocity relative to the wind) and background wind velocity have same magnitudes but opposite directions, is favorable for the formation of the multilayered sporadic E at fixed heights of the sublayers. When the AGWs are absent, then horizontal homogeneous wind causes the formation of sporadic E but with a single peak. In the framework of the suggested theory, it is shown that, in the lower thermosphere, the wind direction, magnitude, and shear determine the development of the processes of ion/electron convergence into the Es-type layer, as well as their density divergence. Consideration of arbitrary height profiles of the meridional and zonal components of the horizontal wind velocity, in case of AGW propagation, should be important for the investigation of the distribution and behavior of heavy metallic ions on regional and global scales. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Upper Atmosphere)
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17 pages, 11387 KiB  
Article
Outdoor Thermal Comfort and Building Energy Use Potential in Different Land-Use Areas in Tropical Cities: Case of Kuala Lumpur
by Yasemin D. Aktas, Kai Wang, Yu Zhou, Murnira Othman, Jenny Stocker, Mark Jackson, Christina Hood, David Carruthers, Mohd Talib Latif, Dina D’Ayala and Julian Hunt
Atmosphere 2020, 11(6), 652; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos11060652 - 19 Jun 2020
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 5519
Abstract
High air temperature and high humidity, combined with low wind speeds, are common trends in the tropical urban climates, which collectively govern heat-induced health risks and outdoor thermal comfort under the given hygrothermal conditions. The impact of different urban land-uses on air temperatures [...] Read more.
High air temperature and high humidity, combined with low wind speeds, are common trends in the tropical urban climates, which collectively govern heat-induced health risks and outdoor thermal comfort under the given hygrothermal conditions. The impact of different urban land-uses on air temperatures is well-documented by many studies focusing on the urban heat island phenomenon; however, an integrated study of air temperature and humidity, i.e., the human-perceived temperatures, in different land-use areas is essential to understand the impact of hot and humid tropical urban climates on the thermal comfort of urban dwellers for an appraisal of potential health risks and the associated building energy use potential. In this study, we show through near-surface monitoring how these factors vary in distinct land-use areas of Kuala Lumpur city, characterized by different morphological features (high-rise vs. low-rise; compact vs. open), level of anthropogenic heating and evapotranspiration (built-up vs. green areas), and building materials (concrete buildings vs. traditional Malay homes in timber) based on the calculated heat index (HI), apparent temperature (TApp) and equivalent temperature (TE) values in wet and dry seasons. The results show that the felt-like temperatures are almost always higher than the air temperatures in all land-use areas, and this difference is highest in daytime temperatures in green areas during the dry season, by up to about 8 °C (HI)/5 °C (TApp). The TE values are also up to 9% higher in these areas than in built-up areas. We conclude that tackling urban heat island without compromising thermal comfort levels, hence encouraging energy use reduction in buildings to cope with outdoor conditions requires a careful management of humidity levels, as well as a careful selection of building morphology and materials. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Assessing the Impact of Climate Change on Urban Cultural Heritage)
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14 pages, 2638 KiB  
Article
Investigation of Non-Methane Hydrocarbons at a Central Adriatic Marine Site Mali Lošinj, Croatia
by Glenda Herjavić, Brunislav Matasović, Gregor Arh and Elvira Kovač-Andrić
Atmosphere 2020, 11(6), 651; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos11060651 - 18 Jun 2020
Viewed by 2642
Abstract
For the first time, volatile hydrocarbons were measured in Croatia, at Mali Lošinj in the period from autumn 2004 to autumn 2005. Mali Lošinj site is conveniently located as a gateway to Croatia for any potential pollution from either Po valley in Italy, [...] Read more.
For the first time, volatile hydrocarbons were measured in Croatia, at Mali Lošinj in the period from autumn 2004 to autumn 2005. Mali Lošinj site is conveniently located as a gateway to Croatia for any potential pollution from either Po valley in Italy, or other locations in southern Europe or even Africa. The sampling was performed on multisorbent tubes and then analyzed by thermal desorption gas chromatography with a flame ionization detector. The aim was to determine and estimate the non-methane hydrocarbons in Mali Lošinj, a location with Mediterranean vegetation and species which emit large quantities of volatile organic compounds. Ozone volume fraction and meteorological parameters were also continuously measured, from April to October 2005. Ethane, ethene, ethyne, propane, propene, n-pentane, n-hexane, benzene and toluene were identified in all air samples. Benzene and toluene have been found in ambient air and significant positive correlations between ethyne and ethane, propane and propene indicate emissions from transport. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Air Quality)
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13 pages, 885 KiB  
Article
The Problems of Passive Remote Sensing of the Earth’s Surface in the Range of 1.2–1.6 GHz
by Gennady V. Golubkov, Mikhail I. Manzhelii, Alexandr A. Berlin, Lev V. Eppelbaum, Alexey A. Lushnikov, Igor I. Morozov, Alexey V. Dmitriev, Sergey O. Adamson, Yuri A. Dyakov, Andrey N. Morozov and Maxim G. Golubkov
Atmosphere 2020, 11(6), 650; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos11060650 - 18 Jun 2020
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 4054
Abstract
The main problems of remote sensing of the Earth’s surface within the frequency range 1.2–1.6 GHz are discussed. They are related to the resonant quantum properties of the radio wave propagation medium in the lower ionosphere. It is shown that, for the passive [...] Read more.
The main problems of remote sensing of the Earth’s surface within the frequency range 1.2–1.6 GHz are discussed. They are related to the resonant quantum properties of the radio wave propagation medium in the lower ionosphere. It is shown that, for the passive remote sensing, the main source is incoherent microwave radiation of the D and E ionospheric layers in the decimeter range. For the first time, a theoretically grounded principally new scheme of measurements is suggested. The scheme assumes that the radiation source exists below the satellite orbit and accounts for the fact that two types of radiation (direct and reflected) reach the satellite sensor. The separation of the respective fluxes is a serious problem that should be solved for the correct interpretation of the measurements. The question is raised regarding the correct calibration of measuring equipment, depending on the current state of the ionosphere. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Atmospheric Applications in Microwave Radiometry)
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14 pages, 4116 KiB  
Article
Tropical Atlantic Mixed Layer Buoyancy Seasonality: Atmospheric and Oceanic Physical Processes Contributions
by Ibrahima Camara, Juliette Mignot, Nicolas Kolodziejczyk, Teresa Losada and Alban Lazar
Atmosphere 2020, 11(6), 649; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos11060649 - 18 Jun 2020
Viewed by 2824
Abstract
This study investigates the physical processes controlling the mixed layer buoyancy using a regional configuration of an ocean general circulation model. Processes are quantified by using a linearized equation of state, a mixed-layer heat, and a salt budget. Model results correctly reproduce the [...] Read more.
This study investigates the physical processes controlling the mixed layer buoyancy using a regional configuration of an ocean general circulation model. Processes are quantified by using a linearized equation of state, a mixed-layer heat, and a salt budget. Model results correctly reproduce the observed seasonal near-surface density tendencies. The results indicate that the heat flux is located poleward of 10° of latitude, which is at least three times greater than the freshwater flux that mainly controls mixed layer buoyancy. During boreal spring-summer of each hemisphere, the freshwater flux partly compensates the heat flux in terms of buoyancy loss while, during the fall-winter, they act together. Under the seasonal march of the Inter-tropical Convergence Zone and in coastal areas affected by the river, the contribution of ocean processes on the upper density becomes important. Along the north Brazilian coast and the Gulf of Guinea, horizontal and vertical processes involving salinity are the main contributors to an upper water change with a contribution of at least twice as much the temperature. At the equator and along the Senegal-Mauritanian coast, vertical processes are the major oceanic contributors. This is mainly due to the vertical gradient of temperature at the mixed layer base in the equator while the salinity one dominates along the Senegal-Mauritania coast. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Tropical Atlantic Variability)
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25 pages, 6265 KiB  
Article
Agricultural Water Vulnerability under Climate Change in Cyprus
by Maria P. Papadopoulou, Despoina Charchousi, Katerina Spanoudaki, Anna Karali, Konstantinos V. Varotsos, Christos Giannakopoulos, Marinos Markou and Maria Loizidou
Atmosphere 2020, 11(6), 648; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos11060648 - 18 Jun 2020
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 4870
Abstract
This study focuses on the quantification of climate change (CC) effects on agricultural water availability in Cyprus. Projections of climatic variables, based on Regional Climate Models (RCMs) forced by the Representative Concentration Pathways (RCPs) 4.5 and 8.5, were used as CC driving forces [...] Read more.
This study focuses on the quantification of climate change (CC) effects on agricultural water availability in Cyprus. Projections of climatic variables, based on Regional Climate Models (RCMs) forced by the Representative Concentration Pathways (RCPs) 4.5 and 8.5, were used as CC driving forces affecting water availability. Groundwater flow models were developed for specific high-interest agricultural areas in Larnaca and Paphos to assess the CC impacts on these groundwater systems, while the Standardized Precipitation–Evapotranspiration Index (SPEI) analysis was also adopted, for the first time in Cyprus, to assess future trends of water reservoir storage under the projected climatic conditions. Considering the current cultivation and irrigation practices, a decrease in groundwater level close to 1 m and further inland seawater intrusion in Larnaca aquifers are expected, while in Paphos’ aquifers, the predicted water table fluctuations are not significant. Additionally, SPEI values at the Asprokemos and Kouris dams are correlated with water storage measurements, showing that a SPEI downward trend observed in these reservoirs could set off an alarm to the water authorities with respect to water availability as more severe drought events are expected in the future. The expected pressure on surface waters imposes the need for an improved water management plan that will not depend on the further exploitation of groundwater. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Adaptation of Cyprus Agriculture to Climate Change)
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17 pages, 3318 KiB  
Article
Simulation of Wind Speed Based on Different Driving Datasets and Parameterization Schemes Near Dunhuang Wind Farms in Northwest of China
by Tiejun Zhang, Cailing Zhao, Chongshui Gong and ZhaoXia Pu
Atmosphere 2020, 11(6), 647; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos11060647 - 18 Jun 2020
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 4340
Abstract
In this study, we evaluate the impacts of different datasets (e.g., NCEP global forecast system (GFS) and ERA5) that are used to derive the initial and boundary conditions, various planetary parameterization boundary layer (PBL) schemes and radiation parameterization schemes on wind speed simulations [...] Read more.
In this study, we evaluate the impacts of different datasets (e.g., NCEP global forecast system (GFS) and ERA5) that are used to derive the initial and boundary conditions, various planetary parameterization boundary layer (PBL) schemes and radiation parameterization schemes on wind speed simulations over wind farms near Dunhuang in Northwest of China. The mesoscale community Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) model is employed to simulate the wind speeds in March of 2014. The sensitivity of numerical simulations to different PBL schemes, including the Yonsei University (YSU), the Asymmetric Convective Model (ACM2) and the Mellor–Yamada–Janjic (MYJ) scheme are examined. Besides, simulations with different radiation parameterization schemes, including the Rapid Radiative Transfer Model for general circulation model (GCM) applications (RRTMG) and the Fu–Liou–Gu radiative transfer scheme (FLG), are compared. Based on hourly observation data from three national basic meteorological observing stations and an anemometer tower in Dunhuang, the simulation results are evaluated. Results show that, using the GFS data as the initial data, the simulation error of 10-m wind speed is rather smaller under the combination of the YSU and FLG. When using the ERA5 data as the initial data, the error of the 2-m temperature simulation is smaller, and it is also less than that of the 10-m wind speed simulation. The simulation results show significant differences at different altitudes. The relative error of wind speed is larger at higher altitude. In the vertical direction, the wind speed is smaller at a lower height and so is the simulation error. In terms of wind speed from the anemometer tower, the error of the wind speed is related to the magnitude of the observed wind speed. Therefore, according to specific conditions of the simulated area, selecting an appropriate combination of initial data and parameterization schemes can effectively reduce the errors of simulated wind speed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Meteorology)
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32 pages, 3567 KiB  
Review
Atmospheric Pollutant Dispersion over Complex Terrain: Challenges and Needs for Improving Air Quality Measurements and Modeling
by Lorenzo Giovannini, Enrico Ferrero, Thomas Karl, Mathias W. Rotach, Chantal Staquet, Silvia Trini Castelli and Dino Zardi
Atmosphere 2020, 11(6), 646; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos11060646 - 18 Jun 2020
Cited by 62 | Viewed by 10611
Abstract
Pollutant dispersion processes over complex terrain are much more complicated than over flat areas, as they are affected by atmospheric interactions with the orography at different spatial scales. This paper reviews recent findings and progress in this field, focusing on both experimental and [...] Read more.
Pollutant dispersion processes over complex terrain are much more complicated than over flat areas, as they are affected by atmospheric interactions with the orography at different spatial scales. This paper reviews recent findings and progress in this field, focusing on both experimental and modeling perspectives. It highlights open questions and challenges to our capability for better understanding and representing atmospheric processes controlling the fate of pollutants over mountainous areas. In particular, attention is focused on new measurement techniques for the retrieval of spatially distributed turbulence information and air quality parameters, and on challenges for meteorological and dispersion models to reproduce fine-scale processes influenced by the orography. Finally, specific needs in this field are discussed, along with possible directions for future research efforts. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Atmospheric Processes over Complex Terrain)
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