Minerals

19 pages, 4549 KiB

Open AccessArticle

U–Pb Dating of Fibrous Dolomite in the Hydrothermal Dolostone of the Dengying Formation, Central Sichuan Basin, and Its Response to Supercontinent Breakup

by Jiang Zheng, Long Wen, Yuhui Ge, Gang Zhou, Ya Zhang, Wei Yan, Huan Jiang, Zili Zhang and Aihua Xi

Minerals 2023, 13(10), 1353; https://doi.org/10.3390/min13101353 - 23 Oct 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1346

Abstract

Super-deep drilling in the central Sichuan Basin encountered volcanic rocks of the Suxiong Formation, which are overlain by multiple hydrothermal alterations within the upper section of the Ediacaran Dengying Formation. This provides an excellent research opportunity to understand the pre-Cambrian hydrothermal activity and [...] Read more.

Super-deep drilling in the central Sichuan Basin encountered volcanic rocks of the Suxiong Formation, which are overlain by multiple hydrothermal alterations within the upper section of the Ediacaran Dengying Formation. This provides an excellent research opportunity to understand the pre-Cambrian hydrothermal activity and geological evolution of the western margin of the Yangtze Craton. Observations revealed the development of a series of hydrothermal dolomite aggregates characterized by the presence of brown sphalerite within fractures and pores of the carbonate rock. Microscopically, the dolomite exhibited fibrous columnar crystallization, forming radial bands with a gradual decrease in crystallization intensity from the center to the periphery. Cathodoluminescence analysis revealed the presence of approximately eight dolomite bands within the aggregate. U–Pb dating from the inner to outer bands yielded isotopic ages of 781 ± 12 Ma for the second band, 683 ± 12 Ma for the fifth, 562 ± 12 Ma for the sixth, and 545.4 ± 6.9 Ma for the seventh. The in situ rare earth element (REE) distribution patterns of the 781 and 683 Ma dolomite bands exhibited similarities. They both showed low total REE content (∑REE), with significant fractionation between light and heavy REEs. Additionally, they exhibited negative anomalies in cerium (Ce) and europium (Eu), while heavy REEs were relatively enriched. The dolomite bands at 562 and 545 Ma also exhibited similar REE characteristics, with low ∑REE and weak fractionation between light and heavy REEs. They also displayed distinct negative anomalies in Ce and Eu, indicating similar distribution patterns. These findings suggested that formation of the banded hydrothermal dolostone occurred during different tectonic events, and the presence of heavy REE-enriched hydrothermal fluids suggested a deep-seated origin. This study has provided preliminary evidence that the Dengying Formation, previously considered to be of the Ediacaran age, has undergone multiple episodes of deep-seated fluid infiltration and alteration since the Mesoproterozoic Era. Importantly, these events coincide with the rifting of the Rodinia and Pannotia supercontinents, aligning with their respective timeframes. This finding raises questions regarding the stratigraphic division and correlation of the formations in the deeply buried core area of the basin. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Mineral Geochemistry and Geochronology)

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23 pages, 1701 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Mineralogical, Petrological and Geochemical Characterisation of Chrysotile, Amosite and Crocidolite Asbestos Mine Waste from Southern Africa in Context of Risk Assessment and Rehabilitation

by Jessica Shaye Schapira, Robert Bolhar, Sharad Master and Allan H. Wilson

Minerals 2023, 13(10), 1352; https://doi.org/10.3390/min13101352 - 23 Oct 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1765

Abstract

Derelict asbestos mine sites in South Africa pose a considerable risk to human, environmental and socio-economic health. Comprehensive mineralogical and geochemical datasets for the existing hazardous geological materials still exposed in Southern African derelict asbestos mines remain largely non-existent, as very little published [...] Read more.

Derelict asbestos mine sites in South Africa pose a considerable risk to human, environmental and socio-economic health. Comprehensive mineralogical and geochemical datasets for the existing hazardous geological materials still exposed in Southern African derelict asbestos mines remain largely non-existent, as very little published and up-to-date literature is available. In this study, three representative types of asbestos mineral fibres from derelict asbestos mines in Southern Africa, namely chrysotile from Havelock mine, amosite from Penge mine and crocidolite from Prieska mine, are characterized mineralogically and geochemically to critically evaluate actual hazards in rural and asbestos-fibre-contaminated regions. The samples were examined using polarising light microscopy, X-ray fluorescence (major and trace elemental analysis), X-ray diffraction (including Rietveld refinement), specific surface area analysis and bio-durability testing. Data are discussed in view of their potential toxicities on both human health and the environment in the context of developing countries. Finally, information on the mineralogical and geochemical status of asbestos mine waste and its importance as baseline data for rehabilitation considerations is also evaluated. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Pollution and Assessment in Mining Areas)

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18 pages, 9861 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Characteristics and Controlling Factors of Particle Crushing in Volcaniclastic Sediments under Compaction: The Quaternary Pyroclastic Deposits of Hongtu Hill, Changbaishan Area, Northeastern China

by Jiawei Bai, Huafeng Tang, Jia Hu, Liying Yang, Tianchan Guo and Zhiqiang Zhang

Minerals 2023, 13(10), 1351; https://doi.org/10.3390/min13101351 - 23 Oct 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1394

Abstract

Recently, many scholars have conducted experimental mechanical compaction studies on sandstones, carbonates, and mudstones to visually study the mechanical compaction process and reservoir evolution of sedimentary rocks. However, experimental mechanical compaction studies on the evolution of the compaction process of pyroclastic rocks have [...] Read more.

Recently, many scholars have conducted experimental mechanical compaction studies on sandstones, carbonates, and mudstones to visually study the mechanical compaction process and reservoir evolution of sedimentary rocks. However, experimental mechanical compaction studies on the evolution of the compaction process of pyroclastic rocks have been ignored. Volcaniclastic rock reservoirs are widely distributed across the world and strongly influenced by the crushing of pyroclastic particles. In this study, we analyzed the characteristics and controlling factors of the crushing of pyroclastic particles during compaction diagenesis from a microscopic perspective through experimental mechanical compaction. These results can provide quantitative compaction background parameters for the quantitative study of pyroclastic rock reservoir evolution. We took pyroclastic samples from Hongtu Hill in the Changbaishan area as an example, and experimental mechanical compaction experiments were conducted. Furthermore, image surface porosity and particle analysis statistical methods were used, and the variations in the effective porosity and image surface porosity under different axial stresses were studied. The results showed that, after compaction, the effective porosity did not exhibit a decreasing trend with increasing axial stress but rather a normal distribution trend that initially increased and then decreased. In the compaction experiment, the pyroclastic particle crushing process was segmented with increasing axial stress, and there was an obvious compaction band in the initial stage of the compaction, called the particle rearrangement stage (10–30 MPa). Furthermore, there were relatively non-successive compaction localization areas in the later stage of compaction, called the particle crushing stage (50–70 MPa), which was represented by vitreous basalt particles surrounded by porphyritic basalt particles. During experimental mechanical compaction, the smaller the compactness, the smaller the solidity, and the larger the slenderness of the particles, the more likely the particles were to break during compaction. Particles containing intragranular pores and vitreous basalt particles were easily crushed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Petrological and Geochemical Characteristics of Reservoirs)

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21 pages, 2944 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Experimental and Modelling Study of Pt, Pd, and 2E+Au Flotation Kinetics for Platreef Ore by Exploring the Influence of Reagent Dosage Variations

by Parisa Doubra, Candice Carelse, Deshenthree Chetty and Marian Manuel

Minerals 2023, 13(10), 1350; https://doi.org/10.3390/min13101350 - 23 Oct 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1394

Abstract

This study investigates the flotation kinetics of individual platinum-group elements (PGEs) and gold, namely Pt, Pd, and 2E+Au (i.e., Pt+Pd+Au), in the context of Platreef ore flotation. Experimental tests were conducted on a Platreef ore feed using various dosages of depressants, frothers, and [...] Read more.

This study investigates the flotation kinetics of individual platinum-group elements (PGEs) and gold, namely Pt, Pd, and 2E+Au (i.e., Pt+Pd+Au), in the context of Platreef ore flotation. Experimental tests were conducted on a Platreef ore feed using various dosages of depressants, frothers, and collectors under controlled agitation and pH conditions. The recoveries of the individual PGEs were analysed using six kinetic models, with the modified Kelsall model identified as the most suitable for accurately describing the flotation kinetics and predicting elemental recovery. Notably, the model incorporates two rate constants (k_fast and k_slow) to account for the distinct flotation behaviours of the PGEs. The results indicate that Pt has the fastest floatability, followed by Pd and 2E+Au. The modified Kelsall model demonstrates high effectiveness in predicting the recovery of these PGEs. Three empirical correlations for Pt, Pd, and 2E+Au recoveries based on the modified Kelsall model are proposed, enhancing the understanding and optimisation of PGE recovery in Platreef ore flotation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Design, Modeling, Optimization and Control of Flotation Process)

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17 pages, 20089 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Petrogenesis of Eocene Lamprophyre Dykes in Northern Qiangtang Terrane, Tibetan Plateau: Implications for the Tethyan Mantle Metasomatism and Tectonic Evolution

by Xiaohui Zeng, Tingting Gong, Han Zhao and Fuhao Xiong

Minerals 2023, 13(10), 1349; https://doi.org/10.3390/min13101349 - 23 Oct 2023

Viewed by 1469

Abstract

Post-collisional (ultra)potassic lamprophyre dykes are the key probes for understanding mantle metasomatism and reconstructing tectonic evolution. In this study, we present new petrological, geochronological, geochemical and zircon Lu-Hf isotopic data for lamprophyre dykes in the northern Qiangtang terrane (central Tibet), aiming to constrain [...] Read more.

Post-collisional (ultra)potassic lamprophyre dykes are the key probes for understanding mantle metasomatism and reconstructing tectonic evolution. In this study, we present new petrological, geochronological, geochemical and zircon Lu-Hf isotopic data for lamprophyre dykes in the northern Qiangtang terrane (central Tibet), aiming to constrain their petrogenesis and geodynamic setting. The studied lamprophyres are minettes with phenocrysts of siderophyllite and phlogopite, which intrude into Triassic granite of 236.9 Ma. These lamprophyres yield zircon U-Pb ages of 39.7–40.9 Ma. They exhibit high contents of K₂O (7.61–8.59 wt.%) and ultrapotassic features with high K₂O/Na₂O (11.43–14.38) ratios. They are characterized by increased values of Mg# (69.1 to 72.1) and high concentrations of compatible elements (e.g., Cr = 277–529 ppm, Ni = 232–322 ppm), which are diagnostic of mantle-derived primitive magma. The studied lamprophyres have a high abundance of rare earth elements (∑REE = 902–1061 ppm) with significantly fractionated REE patterns ((La/Yb)_N = 66.3–100.6), and they are enriched in large ion lithophile elements (LILE) and light rare earth elements (LREE), but depleted in high field strength elements (HFSE) (e.g., Nb, Ta and Ti) and heavy rare earth elements (HREE) with enriched zircon Hf isotopes (εHf(t) from −6.40 to 3.80). This indicates their derivation from an enriched mantle source which was metasomatized by subduction-related fluids and sediment-derived melts. A petrogenetic study suggests that the lamprophyres were generated by the partial melting of a phlogopite-bearing lherzolite within the garnet stability field. We propose that the Cenozoic ultrapotassic mafic rocks in the central Tibetan Plateau originated in the lithospheric mantle metasomatized by the subduction-related components, and are the magmatic response to the detachment of the subducted Tethyan slab. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Mineral Geochemistry and Geochronology)

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21 pages, 18602 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Genesis of the Yi’nan Tongjing Gold–Copper Skarn Deposit, Luxi District, North China Craton: Evidence from Fluid Inclusions and H–O Isotopes

by Wenyan Cai, Xiao Liu, Zhaolu Zhang, Jilei Gao, Ming Lei, Qingyi Cui, Ming Ma, Yadong Li and Yingxin Song

Minerals 2023, 13(10), 1348; https://doi.org/10.3390/min13101348 - 23 Oct 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1406

Abstract

The Luxi district presents an exceptional research area for the investigation of the significant role played by magma exsolution fluids in the mineralization process of Au–Cu deposits. A particularly noteworthy occurrence within this region is the Yi’nan Tongjing Au–Cu skarn deposit, situated in [...] Read more.

The Luxi district presents an exceptional research area for the investigation of the significant role played by magma exsolution fluids in the mineralization process of Au–Cu deposits. A particularly noteworthy occurrence within this region is the Yi’nan Tongjing Au–Cu skarn deposit, situated in the central-southern part of the Luxi district. This deposit primarily occurs in the contact zone between the early Cretaceous Tongjing complex and the Proterozoic to Cambrian sequences. The ore formation process observed in this deposit can be categorized into three distinct stages: (I) thermal metamorphism, (II) prograde alteration, and (III) retrograde alteration. The retrograde alteration stage is further divided into four sub-stages: late skarn (III-1), oxide (III-2), sulfide (III-3), and late quartz-calcite (III-4). It is primarily during the III-3 sub-stage that gold mineralization occurs. Petrographic analysis has identified three types of fluid inclusions (FIs) within garnet, quartz, and calcite grains. These include liquid-rich two-phase aqueous FIs, vapor-rich two-phase aqueous FIs, and halite-bearing multi-phase FIs. The homogenization temperatures of fluid inclusions from stages II, III-3, and III-4 range between 430–457 °C, 341–406 °C, and 166–215 °C (first to third quartiles), respectively. The garnet samples from stage II exhibit hydrogen and oxygen isotope compositions (δ¹⁸O_H2O = 6.8‰ and δD = −73‰) that are indicative of a typical magma source. However, the hydrogen and oxygen isotopes of sub-stages III-1, III-2, and III-3 (δ¹⁸O_H2O = 7.32‰ to 9.74‰; δD = −107‰ to −81.9‰) fall below the magma water box while the hydrogen and oxygen isotope values of III-4 (δ¹⁸O_H2O = −5.3‰ to −0.9‰ and δD = −103.8‰ to −67‰) tend to move towards the meteoric water line. Furthermore, the ore-forming fluid displays characteristics of a mixture between the crustal and mantle fluids. The Tongjing complex occurred along a weakened fault zone, initiating a process of thermal metamorphism upon contact with the wall rock. This thermal metamorphism resulted in the formation of diverse assemblages, including hornfels, reaction skarns, and skarnoids. Subsequently, the upward movement of ore-forming fluids triggered exsolution which led to the establishment of a high-temperature, medium-salinity NaCl–H₂O system with a single phase at depths ranging from 1–3 km. This marked the formation of the prograde alteration stage. Afterward, the ore-forming fluid underwent water–rock interactions and the admixture of meteoric water at a depth of 1–2 km. These processes facilitated phase separation, commonly referred to as boiling, resulting in the transformation of the ore-forming fluid into higher salinity fluids and lower-density gases. This evolutionary transition ultimately induced the precipitation and liberation of gold and copper from the fluid. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Iron-Oxide-Apatite Deposits and Fe Skarn Deposits: Genesis, Similarities, and Differences)

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19 pages, 10421 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Micropore Structure of Deep Shales from the Wufeng–Longmaxi Formations, Southern Sichuan Basin, China: Insight into the Vertical Heterogeneity and Controlling Factors

by Hongzhi Yang, Shengxian Zhao, Bo Li, Yong Liu, Majia Zheng, Jian Zhang, Yongyang Liu, Gaoxiang Wang, Meixuan Yin and Lieyan Cao

Minerals 2023, 13(10), 1347; https://doi.org/10.3390/min13101347 - 23 Oct 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1064

Abstract

The microscopic pore throat structure of shale reservoir rocks directly affects the reservoir seepage capacity. The occurrence and flow channels of shale gas are mainly micron–nanometer pore throats. Therefore, to clarify the microstructural characteristics and influencing factors of the deep organic-rich shales, a [...] Read more.

The microscopic pore throat structure of shale reservoir rocks directly affects the reservoir seepage capacity. The occurrence and flow channels of shale gas are mainly micron–nanometer pore throats. Therefore, to clarify the microstructural characteristics and influencing factors of the deep organic-rich shales, a study is conducted on the marine shale from the Upper Silurian to Lower Ordovician Wufeng–Longmaxi Formation in the southern Sichuan Basin. Petrographic lithofacies division is carried out in combination with petro-mineralogical characteristics, and a high-resolution scanning electron microscope, low-temperature nitrogen and low-temperature carbon dioxide adsorption, and micron-computed tomography are used to characterize the mineral composition and pore structure qualitatively and quantitatively, upon which the influencing factors of the microstructure are further analyzed. The results show that with the increase in burial depth, the total organic carbon content and siliceous mineral content decrease in the Wufeng formation to Long-1₁ subsection deep shale, while clay mineral content increases, which corresponds to the change in sedimentary environment from anoxic to oxidizing environment. Unexpectedly, the total pore volume of deep shale does not decrease with the increase in burial depth but increases first and then decreases. Using total organic carbon (TOC), siliceous mineral content showed a good correlation with total pore volume and specific surface area, with correlation coefficients greater than 0.7, confirming the predominant role of these two factors in controlling the pore structure of deep shales. This is mainly because the Longmaxi shale is already in the late diagenetic stage, and organic matter pores are generated in large quantities. Clay minerals have a negative correlation with the total pore volume of shale, and the correlation coefficient is 0.7591. It could be that clay minerals are much more flexible and are easily deformed to block the pores under compaction. In addition, the longitudinal heterogeneity of the deep shale reservoir structure in southern Sichuan is also controlled by the thermal effect of the Emei mantle plume on hydrocarbon generation of organic matter and the development of natural microfractures promoted by multistage tectonic movement. Overall, the complex microstructure in the deep shales of the Longmaxi Formation in the southern Sichuan Basin is jointly controlled by multiple effects, and the results of this research provide strong support for the benefit development of deep shale gas in southern Sichuan Basin. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Hydrocarbon Generation and Accumulation in Unconventional Shale Reservoir: Up-to-Date Advances in Theory, Experiment, Method and Application, Volume II)

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15 pages, 4813 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Efficient Copper Recovery from Chalcopyrite Using an «Isopropanol–Sulfuric Acid–Sodium Dodecyl Sulfate» System

by Bagdaulet Kenzhaliyev, Tlek Ketegenov, Kaster Kamunur, Aisulu Batkal and Rashid Nadirov

Minerals 2023, 13(10), 1346; https://doi.org/10.3390/min13101346 - 22 Oct 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1284

Abstract

In this study, SDS is used to enhance the sulfuric acid leaching of chalcopyrite in aqueous and isopropanol media. The presence of SDS increased copper extraction into the solution in both solvents. However, it was the “isopropanol–sulfuric acid–SDS” system that proved to be [...] Read more.

In this study, SDS is used to enhance the sulfuric acid leaching of chalcopyrite in aqueous and isopropanol media. The presence of SDS increased copper extraction into the solution in both solvents. However, it was the “isopropanol–sulfuric acid–SDS” system that proved to be particularly effective for copper recovery from chalcopyrite. The positive effect of SDS can be attributed to the reduction in the solution’s surface tension and the enhancement of mineral wetting. Additionally, the presence of SDS as a surfactant induces changes in the adsorption patterns of formed sulfur species on the mineral surface. SDS competes with sulfur for occupancy on the surface binding sites. This competitive interaction has the potential to diminish the formation of a substantial sulfur layer on the mineral surface. Under optimal conditions (isopropanol media, 2 M H₂SO₄, 65 °C, 120 min, 0.6 g/L SDS), copper recovery into the solution was 83%, and this is a considerable achievement for chalcopyrite leaching at ambient pressure in the absence of strong oxidizers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Mineral Processing and Extractive Metallurgy)

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15 pages, 3209 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Distinct Extraction Behaviors of La/Ce and Sc/Y in the Phosphoric Acidic Leachate of Bauxite Residues and Their Sequential Extraction with Di-(2-Ethylhexyl) Phosphoric Acid as Extractant

by Bowen Li, Bona Deng, Yuqi Yao, Chuanli Wang, Yaoyang Ruan, Fang Zhou, Ru’an Chi and Hanquan Zhang

Minerals 2023, 13(10), 1345; https://doi.org/10.3390/min13101345 - 22 Oct 2023

Viewed by 1117

Abstract

Bauxite residue is a hazardous solid waste produced in the alumina production process and has also become a significant rare earth resource. The extraction behaviors of La, Ce, Sc and Y solubilized in the phosphoric acidic leachate of bauxite residue were investigated in [...] Read more.

Bauxite residue is a hazardous solid waste produced in the alumina production process and has also become a significant rare earth resource. The extraction behaviors of La, Ce, Sc and Y solubilized in the phosphoric acidic leachate of bauxite residue were investigated in this study with di-(2-ethylhexyl) phosphoric acid as the extractant. With a relatively low concentration of 2% at an aqueous solution pH of 1.5, 90% Sc and 98% Y were extracted by di-(2-ethylhexyl) phosphoric acid. Less than 5% La and Ce and impurities of Fe, Al, Ti and Ca were extracted in this situation. As the concentration of di-(2-ethylhexyl) phosphoric acid increased to 20%, almost all the Sc and Y were extracted and the extraction ratios of La and Ce were 87% and 95%, respectively. A good separation of REEs against impurities was simultaneously obtained in the solvent extraction process and their separation coefficients were much higher than 1. A stepwise extraction process was proposed and established to extract Sc/Y and La/Ce sequentially from the phosphoric acidic leachate. It was further revealed that the Sc and Y in the acidic leachate were extracted by di-(2-ethylhexyl) phosphoric acid through an ion exchange process, and that the extraction of La and Ce was due to an antagonistic process where both an ion exchange reaction and a solvation reaction occurred. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Developments on the Leaching Process of Rare Earth Ore)

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15 pages, 2771 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Biomineralization and Characterization of Calcite and Vaterite Induced by the Fungus Cladosporium sp. YPLJS-14

by Peilin Ye, Feirong Xiao and Shiping Wei

Minerals 2023, 13(10), 1344; https://doi.org/10.3390/min13101344 - 22 Oct 2023

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 1997

Abstract

Microbially induced calcium carbonate precipitation (MICP) by the urease-producing bacteria has wide applications in the field of geology and environmental engineering. Compared to bacteria, fungi usually possess more tolerance to high salts and heavy metals, enabling MICP induced by the urease-producing fungi to [...] Read more.

Microbially induced calcium carbonate precipitation (MICP) by the urease-producing bacteria has wide applications in the field of geology and environmental engineering. Compared to bacteria, fungi usually possess more tolerance to high salts and heavy metals, enabling MICP induced by the urease-producing fungi to be applied to harsh environments. In this study, the carbonate minerals, induced by the urease-producing fungi isolated from marine sediments, were investigated. One of the urease-producing fungi, designated as YPLJS-14, was identified with the high efficiency of precipitating calcium carbonate. The ITS sequence of YPLJS-14 revealed that it belongs to the genus of Cladosporium. The precipitates induced by this strain were characterized by XRD, SEM, TEM, SAED, and FTIR, respectively. The results show that the mineral phase of fungal precipitates is composed of calcite and vaterite. SEM, TEM, and SAED confirm that the minerals in rhombohedral morphology are calcite and the spherical minerals are vaterite. Thermogravimetric and derivative thermogravimetric (TG/DTG) analyses show that vaterite is a thermodynamically unstable mineral phase compared to calcite and easily decomposes at lower temperatures. These findings provide a foundation for understanding the mineralization mechanism of the urease-producing fungi and the potential applications in environmental engineering. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Minerals Related to Biological Action and Their Potential Applications)

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21 pages, 12703 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Metallogenic Model for Pb-Zn Deposits in Clastic Rocks of the Dahai Mining Area, Northeast Yunnan: Evidence from H-O-S-Sr-Pb Isotopes

by Hongsheng Gong, Runsheng Han, Peng Wu, Gang Chen and Ling Ma

Minerals 2023, 13(10), 1343; https://doi.org/10.3390/min13101343 - 20 Oct 2023

Viewed by 1324

Abstract

The Dahai Pb-Zn mining area is located in the northwestern Pb-Zn district in northeastern Yunnan Province in the Sichuan-Yunnan-Guizhou Pb-Zn metallogenic triangle (SYGT), east of the Xiaojiang fault. Numerous Pb-Zn deposits (spots) occur in clastic rocks in this area. In this study, the [...] Read more.

The Dahai Pb-Zn mining area is located in the northwestern Pb-Zn district in northeastern Yunnan Province in the Sichuan-Yunnan-Guizhou Pb-Zn metallogenic triangle (SYGT), east of the Xiaojiang fault. Numerous Pb-Zn deposits (spots) occur in clastic rocks in this area. In this study, the Maliping, Laoyingqing, and Jinniuchang Pb-Zn deposits, representative clastic rocks in the Dahai mining area, were selected as research objects. The results of H-O-S-Sr-Pb isotope analyses show that the three deposits mainly formed through the mixing of a basinal brine with a hydrothermal fluid derived from deep within the underlying (deformed) basement, and brines leached organic matter from wall rocks. The δ³⁴S values range from −2.62–30.30‰. The S isotope results show two different sources of reduced S: one in the Laoyingqing deposit derived from the S reduction generated by the pyrolysis of sulfur-bearing organic matter in the carbonaceous slate of the Kunyang Group, and the second in the Maliping and Jinniuchang deposits derived from the S reduction generated by the thermochemical sulfur reduction (TSR) of seawater sulfate in the Lower Cambrian Yuhucun Formation and Sinian Dengying Formation. The Pb isotope results show that the Pb sources of the three deposits are derived from basement rocks (Kunyang Group) with a small portion derived from Devonian–Permian carbonate rocks and Dengying Formation dolomite, both of which have undergone homogenization during mineralization. The Sr content varied from 0.09629 to 0.2523 × 10⁻⁶, and the study shows that the main source of Sr is a mixture of ore-forming fluid flowing through basement rocks (Kunyang Group) and through sedimentary cover. However, most of the Sr in the Maliping deposit is derived from marine carbonate, and in the Laoyingqing deposit, it is provided by basement rocks (Kunyang Group). Based on a comparative study of the deposits, the Pb-Zn deposits in the clastic rocks of the Dahai mining area and the SYGT belong to the same metallogenic system and were formed under the same metallogenic geological background. Finally, a unified metallogenic model of the two types of fluid migration and mixed mineralization of the Pb-Zn deposit in clastic rocks of the Dahai mining area is proposed. The metallogenic model provides a basis for the study of the Pb-Zn metallogenic system and guidance for deep and peripheral prospecting in this area. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Geology, Geochemistry, Genesis, Modeling, Structure and Exploration of Copper Polymetallic Deposits)

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13 pages, 5433 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Extraction of KCl from Potassium Feldspar by Various Inorganic Salts

by Tülay Türk and Murat Olgaç Kangal

Minerals 2023, 13(10), 1342; https://doi.org/10.3390/min13101342 - 20 Oct 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2956

Abstract

Feldspar, which is one of the main inputs of the ceramic and glass industries, has widespread sources in Turkey and thus forms a large component of the country’s mineral exportation. In addition to this, potassium feldspars are one of the raw materials suitable [...] Read more.

Feldspar, which is one of the main inputs of the ceramic and glass industries, has widespread sources in Turkey and thus forms a large component of the country’s mineral exportation. In addition to this, potassium feldspars are one of the raw materials suitable for the production of potash, which is a vital component of the agricultural industry. In our work, the chlorination technique was used to produce potassium chloride (KCl) from potassium feldspar ore of the Kırşehir-Buzlukdağı region. The aim of this study was to determine the most suitable and economical additive for producing KCl from potassium feldspar ore with high efficiency. The calcination process was used to decompose potassium feldspar and form potassium chloride using different kinds of salts, such as CaCl₂, NaCl, and CaSO₄, followed by the water-leaching process. While 93.4% K dissolution efficiency was achieved in the tests performed with CaCl₂, the same dissolution efficiency (93.7%) was obtained in the experiments with a CaCl₂-NaCl mixture by using less CaCl₂. Furthermore, the CaSO₄-NaCl mixture achieved the highest dissolution efficiency. The recovery of KCl from feldspar, by assaying its 7.21% K₂O, was carried out using a 1:1.25:1.5 ratio of feldspar:CaSO₄:NaCl at 1000 °C for 60 min, followed by leaching, to obtain KCl with 96.1% potassium dissolution. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Mineral Processing and Extractive Metallurgy)

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21 pages, 12722 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Geochemistry, Zircon U–Pb Geochronology, and Geological Significance of Late Mesozoic Magmatic Rocks in Guangxi Region (Southeastern China)

by Qing-Gang Mao, Sai-Sai Li, Xing-Yuan Liu, Jiang-Bo Wu, Chun-Jiang Yan, Kun Liu and Wen-Qiang Huang

Minerals 2023, 13(10), 1341; https://doi.org/10.3390/min13101341 - 20 Oct 2023

Viewed by 1259

Abstract

The geodynamic mechanisms that controlled magmatic activity in South China during the late Mesozoic have been a cutting-edge focus of recent research. Southeastern Guangxi, which is located at the juncture between the Pacific and Neo-Tethyan tectonic domains, is a transitional zone characterized by [...] Read more.

The geodynamic mechanisms that controlled magmatic activity in South China during the late Mesozoic have been a cutting-edge focus of recent research. Southeastern Guangxi, which is located at the juncture between the Pacific and Neo-Tethyan tectonic domains, is a transitional zone characterized by the occurrence of widespread Jurassic–Cretaceous magmatic rocks. Investigation of this region can shed light on the late Mesozoic tectonic setting of South China. We conducted U–Pb geochronological and geochemical analyses of the Liuwang granodiorite and quartz porphyry, which are exposed in southeastern Guangxi. Zircon U–Pb dating yielded an age of 161.8 ± 1.2 Ma for the granodiorite and 97.89 ± 0.68 Ma for the quartz porphyry, indicating that they formed during the Late Jurassic and Late Cretaceous, respectively. The Liuwang granodiorites are weakly peraluminous high-K calc-alkaline rocks characterized by enrichment in large ion lithophile elements (including Rb) and high field strength elements (including Th, U, Pb, and Ta) and depletion in Ba, Nb, and Sr. The granodiorites also exhibit weak rare earth element (REE) fractionation and slightly negative Eu anomalies. Conversely, the Liuwang quartz porphyry is weakly peraluminous and belongs to the potassic syenite series, transitioning into the high-K calc-alkaline series. It is characterized by enrichment in Rb and high field strength elements (including Th, U, Pb, and Ta), with depletion in Ba, Nb, Sr, and Zr. It does not exhibit REE fractionation but does yield prominent negative Eu anomalies. The granodiorite and quartz porphyry yield ε_Hf(t) values of −23.26 to −2.48 and −4.4 to +0.8, respectively, with t_DM2 ages of 2642–1270 and 1411–1081 Ma, respectively. These data suggest that the Liuwang granodiorite formed under a background of Late Jurassic lithospheric extension–thinning and was derived from partial melting of Palaeoproterozoic–Mesoproterozoic metasedimentary sandstones with a minor contribution from mantle-derived melts. In contrast, the Liuwang quartz porphyry was derived from partial melting of Mesoproterozoic pelitic rocks and formed in a Late Cretaceous tectonic setting linked to the northward subduction of the Neo-Tethys Ocean beneath South China. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Petrogenesis, Geochronology, Mineralization and Geochemistry of Granite Rocks)

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20 pages, 6249 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Effect of Thermal Maturity on the Pore Structure Heterogeneity of Xiamaling Shale by Multifractal Analysis Theory: A Case from Pyrolysis Simulation Experiments

by Wei Wu, Zhikai Liang, Liang Xu, Yong Liu, Yi Li, Xianglu Tang, Yingzi Yin and Yao Chen

Minerals 2023, 13(10), 1340; https://doi.org/10.3390/min13101340 - 19 Oct 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1218

Abstract

Shale oil and gas, as source-reservoir-type resources, result from organic matter hydrocarbon generation, diagenesis, and nanoscale pore during the evolution processes, which are essential aspects of shale gas enrichment and reservoir formation. To investigate the impact of diagenetic hydrocarbons on shale pore heterogeneity, [...] Read more.

Shale oil and gas, as source-reservoir-type resources, result from organic matter hydrocarbon generation, diagenesis, and nanoscale pore during the evolution processes, which are essential aspects of shale gas enrichment and reservoir formation. To investigate the impact of diagenetic hydrocarbons on shale pore heterogeneity, a thermal simulation of hydrocarbon formation was conducted on immature shale from the Middle Proterozoic Xiamaling Formation in the Zhangjiakou area, covering stages from mature to overmature. Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) instruments analyzed the microstructure of the thermally simulated samples, and the multifractal model quantitatively assessed pore development and heterogeneity in the experimental samples. The results reveal that the quartz and clay mineral contents show alternating trends with increasing temperature. Organic matter dissolution intensifies while unstable mineral content decreases, promoting clay mineral content development. Pyrolysis intensity influences Total Organic Carbon (TOC), which reduces as hydrocarbons are generated and released during simulation. Porosity exhibits a decreasing–increasing–decreasing trend during thermal evolution, peaking at high maturity. At maturity, hydrocarbon generation obstructs pore space, resulting in higher levels of bound fluid porosity than those of movable fluid porosity. Conversely, high maturity leads to many organic matter micropores, elevating movable fluid porosity and facilitating seepage. Shale pore heterogeneity significantly increases before 450 °C due to the dissolution of pores and the generation of liquid and gas hydrocarbons. In the highly overmature stage, pore heterogeneity tends to increase slowly, correlated with the generation of numerous micro- and nano-organic matter pores. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Reservoir Characteristics and Evolution Mechanisms of the Shale)

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19 pages, 3783 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Genesis of the Daliuhang Gold Deposit, Jiaodong Peninsula, Eastern China: Constraints from H-O-S-Pb-He-Ar Isotopes, and Geochronology

by Jiepeng Tian, Junjian Li, Xuan Wu, Chao Fu, Zhicai Dang, Pengpeng Zhang, Jiangtao He, Wenlong Tang and Ruicong Tian

Minerals 2023, 13(10), 1339; https://doi.org/10.3390/min13101339 - 19 Oct 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1550

Abstract

The Daliuhang gold deposit in the Qipengfu (Qixia–Penglai–Fushan) ore concentration area is a typical gold deposit of medium-low temperature hydrothermal veins. Uncertainties regarding the primary sources of ore-forming fluids, as well as whether host rocks contribute materials to the mineralization of the gold [...] Read more.

The Daliuhang gold deposit in the Qipengfu (Qixia–Penglai–Fushan) ore concentration area is a typical gold deposit of medium-low temperature hydrothermal veins. Uncertainties regarding the primary sources of ore-forming fluids, as well as whether host rocks contribute materials to the mineralization of the gold deposits in the Jiaodong Peninsula, are still subject to intense debate. Hydrogen–oxygen isotope results show that atmospheric water is involved in ore-forming fluids. According to the results of the helium–argon isotopes of pyrite, it is hypothesized that the initial fluid source was located in the oceanic crust or upper mantle lithosphere above the Early Cretaceous Paleo-Pacific Plate, as it was subducted into the eastern part of the eastern North China Craton. In situ sulfur isotope results show that high δ³⁴S values characterize the pyrite in the main mineralization period. It is inferred that during the thinning and melting process of the lithospheric mantle, the volatile components enriched in pyrite contributed to the release of δ³⁴S. At the same time, when the fluids ascended to the weak zones, such as fissures of ore-endowed peripheral rocks, the δ³⁴S in the peripheral rocks were extracted, and the two processes acted together to cause high δ³⁴S values to occur. Similarly, the lead and strontium isotopic compositions indicate a crust–mantle mixing attribute of the mineralized material source. The zircon U–Pb age of the ore-hosting granodiorite was 130.35 ± 0.55 Ma, and the Rb–Sr isochron age of the pyrite from the main mineralization period was 117.60 ± 0.10 Ma, which represents the timing of felsic magmatism and gold mineralization, respectively, with at least 10 Ma between the magmatism and mineralization. The magma gradually cooled over time after its formation, and when the granodiorite cooled down to 300 ± 50 °C, the temperature and pressure conditions were most conducive to the precipitation of gold. It is inferred that gold-rich initial mantle fluids with volatile components, rising along tectonically weak zones, such as fractures, underwent fluid phase separation in the fractured position of the granite and extracted the gold from the granodiorite, forming gold deposits. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Multi-Method (Geo-) Thermochronology and Trace Elements Tracing Magmatism, Mineralization and Tectonic Evolution)

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13 pages, 2662 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Determination of Geographic Origin of Turquoise by Combining Laser Ablation Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry Analysis and Chemometrics

by Shuoyun Tong, Guodong Chen, Weikang Hu, Shiyang Pan, Dan Zhu, Shuang Liu, Li Lu, Shunchao Zhou and Wanfeng Zhou

Minerals 2023, 13(10), 1338; https://doi.org/10.3390/min13101338 - 19 Oct 2023

Viewed by 1430

Abstract

Microsampling elemental analysis is widely used for gemstone and mineralogy traceability. Using laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry combined with chemometrics, the contents of 56 elements in turquoise samples from 5 distinct producing areas in 3 nations were measured. An origin identification [...] Read more.

Microsampling elemental analysis is widely used for gemstone and mineralogy traceability. Using laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry combined with chemometrics, the contents of 56 elements in turquoise samples from 5 distinct producing areas in 3 nations were measured. An origin identification model for turquoise samples from various producing areas was established through random forest importance analysis, principal component analysis, and linear discriminant analysis. When combined with random forest importance screening, the traceability efficiency of principal component analysis is significantly improved. Moreover, by taking 48 elements as characteristic variables and introducing them into the discriminant model, a Fisher discriminant model for identifying the origin of turquoise was successfully established. The effective element fingerprint information of turquoise species is closely related to the species origin, and the accuracy of cross-validation reaches 99.5%, demonstrating the feasibility of the proposed model for the identification of the origin of turquoise samples. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Mineral Geochemistry and Geochronology)

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17 pages, 5514 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Preparation and Characterization of Mercapto-Functionalized Calcined Attapulgite and Its Removal of Pb (II) and Cd (II) Solution

by Jiaqian Zhang, Zhe Wang, Ying Luo, Zhenlong Zhang, Xiyang Feng, Qiuping Zeng, Duan Tian, Chao Li, Yongde Zhang and Shu Chen

Minerals 2023, 13(10), 1337; https://doi.org/10.3390/min13101337 - 17 Oct 2023

Viewed by 1534

Abstract

To enhance the sorption efficacy of attapulgite for heavy metals, mercapto-functionalized attapulgite (ATP-SH) was synthesized with mercaptan functional groups. When the mass-to-volume ratio of calcined attapulgite (ATP-C) to 3-Mercapropyltrimethoxysilane (MPTMS) was 1 g:0.5 mL (ATP-SH-0.5) and the pH was set to 8, a [...] Read more.

To enhance the sorption efficacy of attapulgite for heavy metals, mercapto-functionalized attapulgite (ATP-SH) was synthesized with mercaptan functional groups. When the mass-to-volume ratio of calcined attapulgite (ATP-C) to 3-Mercapropyltrimethoxysilane (MPTMS) was 1 g:0.5 mL (ATP-SH-0.5) and the pH was set to 8, a strong adsorption capacity for Cd (II) and Pb (II) was demonstrated. This indicates excellent adsorption performance for these heavy metals. ATP-SH-0.5 exhibited a maximum adsorption capacity of 43.81 mg/g and 274.83 mg/g for Cd (II) and Pb (II), respectively, in a single ion system. In a binary ion system, the maximum adsorption capacity was 31.86 mg/L and 254.45 mg/L for Cd (II) and Pb (II), respectively. Various characterizations and experiments showed that the adsorption of Cd (II) and Pb (II) onto ATP-SH-0.5 involves ion exchange reactions involving hydroxyl and thiol functional group complexation reactions. This adsorption process follows a single-molecule layer adsorption mechanism. XPS results indicate that hydroxyl and grafted thiol functional groups on the surface of mercapto-functionalized attapulgite participated in surface complexation reactions with Cd (II) and Pb (II), resulting in the formation of Cd-S and Pb-S species. Overall, this study provides a promising mercapto-functionalized modification material for the remediation of polluted water and soil. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Synthesis, Characterization and Utilization of Clay and Clay Composites: Knowledge in Practice)

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20 pages, 10990 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Petrological, Geochemical and Chronological Characteristics of Dolomites in the Permian Maokou Formation and Constraints to the Reservoir Genesis, Central Sichuan Basin, China

by Xuejing Bai, Jianfeng Zheng, Kun Dai, Shuxin Hong, Junmao Duan and Yunmiao Liu

Minerals 2023, 13(10), 1336; https://doi.org/10.3390/min13101336 - 17 Oct 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1315

Abstract

The Middle Permian Maokou Formation in the Sichuan Basin has huge resources and is an important target for natural gas exploration. In recent years, significant exploration breakthroughs have been made in the dolomite field of member Mao-2 in central Sichuan, and the gas [...] Read more.

The Middle Permian Maokou Formation in the Sichuan Basin has huge resources and is an important target for natural gas exploration. In recent years, significant exploration breakthroughs have been made in the dolomite field of member Mao-2 in central Sichuan, and the gas production of several wells has exceeded 1 × 10⁶ m³/d, indicating promising prospects for exploration. However, the origin of the dolomite reservoir in member Mao-2 remains ambiguous, which restricts the accurate prediction of favorable reservoirs. This study focuses on drilling in the Hechuan area as its research object, by using a detailed description of the cores from member Mao-2 of seven wells; samples were selected for tests of the degree of dolomite cation ordering, stable carbon and oxygen isotopic compositions, strontium isotopic composition, rare earth elements, LA-ICP-MS element mapping and U-Pb dating. It is clarified that: (1) The crystalline dolomite of member Mao-2 in the Hechuan area is the main reservoir rock, and the heterogeneous vugs and fractures are the main reservoir space. The dolomite in member Mao-2 has been characterized by a low degree of cation ordering value (avg. 0.59), with values of δ¹³C (avg. 3.87‰), δ¹⁸O (avg. −7.15‰) and ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr (avg. 0.707474) having similar geochemical characteristics to Middle Permian seawater; the REEs normalized distribution patterns have similar characteristics to limestone; and the U-Pb age (261.0~262.0 Ma) corresponds to the age in the Capitanian stage of the Permian Guadalupian Series. (2) Petrological studies show that member Mao-2 has vertical karstification zonation characteristics; syngenetic karstification controls the formation of a large-scale fracture-cave system in the phreatic zone; the dolomitization of sediment in the fracture-cave system occurred during the penecontemporaneous period with locally restricted seawater. (3) The main controlling factors of the reservoir were syngenetic karstification, early dolomitization and hydrothermal dissolution related to Emei taphrogenesis. The research results are of great significance for dolomite reservoir prediction; the highlands of paleogeomorphology with syndepositional faults are favorable areas for dolomite reservoirs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Deposition, Diagenesis, and Geochemistry of Carbonate Sequences)

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4 pages, 172 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Editorial for the Special Issue “Applied Geophysics in Hydrocarbon Exploration, Energy Storage and CCUS”

by Paulo T. L. Menezes

Minerals 2023, 13(10), 1335; https://doi.org/10.3390/min13101335 - 17 Oct 2023

Viewed by 1289

Abstract

Since its inception, applied geophysics methods have been crucial in the oil and gas exploration industry [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Applied Geophysics in Hydrocarbon Exploration, Energy Storage and CCUS)

18 pages, 3512 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Distinctive Features of the Major and Trace Element Composition of Biotite from Igneous Rocks Associated with Various Types of Mineralization on the Example of the Shakhtama Intrusive Complex (Eastern Transbaikalia)

by Yury Redin, Anna Redina, Alexandra Malyutina, Vladislav Dultsev, Yuri Kalinin, Bair Abramov and Alexander Borisenko

Minerals 2023, 13(10), 1334; https://doi.org/10.3390/min13101334 - 16 Oct 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1500

Abstract

This article presents data on the composition of biotite from igneous rocks of the Shakhtama complex, which are associated with various types of mineralization in Eastern Transbaikalia: Au-Cu-Fe-skarn, skarn-porphyry, Mo-porphyry, rare-metal–greisen, Au-polymetallic and Au-Bi. The major element and halogen contents were determined by [...] Read more.

This article presents data on the composition of biotite from igneous rocks of the Shakhtama complex, which are associated with various types of mineralization in Eastern Transbaikalia: Au-Cu-Fe-skarn, skarn-porphyry, Mo-porphyry, rare-metal–greisen, Au-polymetallic and Au-Bi. The major element and halogen contents were determined by EPMA. The content of trace elements was determined by means of LA-ICP-MS. As a result, the specific traits of the composition of the biotite of igneous rocks associated with specific types of mineralization of the Eastern Transbaikalia were determined. The biotites of rare-metal–greisen deposits are characterized by the maximum content of fluorine (>2 wt. %) and low chlorine content (<0.04 wt. %). In addition, such biotites are characterized by high X_Fe (>0.47). Within Eastern Transbaikalia, igneous rocks developed at the Bystrinsky deposit are potentially ore-bearing for the “classic” porphyry type of mineralization. They have the highest values of IV(F/Cl) (4.9–7.1) and IV(F) (2–2.8) and the lowest values of Log(X_Mg/X_Fe) (0.1–0.4). The trace element composition clearly distinguishes biotites from rare-metal–greisen deposits and is identified by the highest contents (ppm) Ga > 65, Li > 600, Sn > 20, Mn > 2000, Cs > 50, Zn > 600. Biotites of Au-polymetallic and Au-Bi deposits occupy an average position between rare-metal–greisen and Mo-porphyry ones. Biotites of Mo-porphyry deposits differ in minimum values (ppm) of Sn < 3, Zn < 160, and low values of Li (150–290), V (290–440), and Ga (39–48). In general, the chemical composition of biotites shows that the degree of igneous rock fractionation of deposits increases in the series: porphyry–skarn–polymetallic–rare-metal. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Insights into Porphyry, Epithermal, and Skarn Deposits)

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15 pages, 3779 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Tracking Grade Heterogeneity in a Panel Cave Mine: A Reconciliation Study Investigating the Impact of Mixing from an Ore Sorting Perspective

by Mahir Can Cetin, Bern Klein, Genzhuang Li and William Futcher

Minerals 2023, 13(10), 1333; https://doi.org/10.3390/min13101333 - 15 Oct 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1584

Abstract

Bulk ore sorting is a preconcentration method applied to bulk streams or batches of material. The effectiveness of bulk ore sorting relies on the degree of the naturally occurring in situ grade heterogeneity of an ore deposit. The blending of ore during mining [...] Read more.

Bulk ore sorting is a preconcentration method applied to bulk streams or batches of material. The effectiveness of bulk ore sorting relies on the degree of the naturally occurring in situ grade heterogeneity of an ore deposit. The blending of ore during mining and material handling degrades the in situ grade heterogeneity initially present in an orebody and reduces the potential to apply bulk ore sorting. Block and panel cave mines experience mixing from the establishment of caves to the delivery of the caved ore to concentrators. This study focused on tracking the grade heterogeneity and quantifying the impact of mixing on the sorting potential of the Cadia East panel cave mine via the reconciliation of the grade measurements performed at different locations. The results showed that the copper and gold grades were almost fully homogenized via various mixing events identified for the mine. The tracked grade heterogeneity values revealed that the mixing during material handling, which included ore blending according to mine planning, reduced the grade variability more drastically than the mixing within the caves. As the ore travelled from its original in situ location, the grade distributions gradually transformed, and the grades eventually normalized around the mean values. Only insignificant amounts of low-grade material that could have potentially been discarded were reported to the on-belt sensor located at the surface. The results of this study are significant for cave mines exploring sorting systems for preconcentration as they highlight how mixing can impact the variability in ore grades. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Mineral Processing and Extractive Metallurgy)

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15 pages, 5265 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Review on Global Cooperation Network in the Interdisciplinary Research of Geochemistry Combined with Artificial Intelligence

by Qianlong Zhang, Yongzhang Zhou, Juxiang He, Biaobiao Zhu, Feng Han and Shiyao Long

Minerals 2023, 13(10), 1332; https://doi.org/10.3390/min13101332 - 15 Oct 2023

Viewed by 1729

Abstract

With the rapid development of modern geochemical analysis techniques, massive volumes of data are being generated from various sources and forms, and geochemical data acquisition and analysis have become important tools for studying geochemical processes and environmental changes. However, geochemical data have high-dimensional, [...] Read more.

With the rapid development of modern geochemical analysis techniques, massive volumes of data are being generated from various sources and forms, and geochemical data acquisition and analysis have become important tools for studying geochemical processes and environmental changes. However, geochemical data have high-dimensional, nonlinear characteristics, and traditional geochemical data analysis methods have struggled to meet the demands of modern science. Nowadays, the development of big data and artificial intelligence technologies has provided new ideas and methods for geochemical data analysis. However, geochemical research involves numerous fields such as petrology, ore deposit, mineralogy, and others, each with its specific research methods and objectives, making it difficult to strike a balance between depth and breadth of investigation. Additionally, due to limitations in data sources and collection methods, existing studies often focus on a specific discipline or issue, lacking a comprehensive understanding of the bigger picture and foresight for the future. To assist geochemists in identifying research hotspots in the field and exploring solutions to the aforementioned issues, this article comprehensively reviews related studies in recent years, elaborates on the necessity and challenges of combining geochemistry and artificial intelligence, and analyzes the characteristics and research hotspots of the global collaboration network in this field. The study reveals that the investigation into artificial intelligence techniques to address geochemical issues is progressing swiftly. Joint research papers serve as the primary means of contact within a worldwide collaborative network. The primary areas of focus in the ongoing research on the integration of geochemistry and artificial intelligence include methodologies for analyzing geochemical data, environmental modifications, and mineral prospectivity mapping. Geochemical data analysis is currently a significant focus of research, encompassing a range of methods including machine learning and deep learning. Predicting mineral resources for deep space, deep Earth, and deep sea is also a pressing topic in contemporary research. This paper explores the factors driving research interest and future trends, identifies current research challenges, and considers opportunities for future research. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application of Big Data Mining, Machine Learning and Artificial Intelligence in Ore Deposits)

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25 pages, 10679 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Characterization of the Sedimentary Environment of the Shanxi Formation in the Southeastern Ordos Basin Revealed by Detrital Zircon and Geochemical Analyses

by Jiandong Li, Xianqing Li, Wen Tian, Chunhui Xiao, Yingfan Zhao, Jie Xiang and Deyao Sun

Minerals 2023, 13(10), 1331; https://doi.org/10.3390/min13101331 - 14 Oct 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1363

Abstract

The interpretation of the sedimentary paleogeographic environment of the Lower Permian Shanxi Formation (P₁s) coal strata in the southeastern Ordos Basin remains a subject of significant debate. In this paper, based on detrital zircon U–Pb source analysis, paleosalinity assessment, the sandstone [...] Read more.

The interpretation of the sedimentary paleogeographic environment of the Lower Permian Shanxi Formation (P₁s) coal strata in the southeastern Ordos Basin remains a subject of significant debate. In this paper, based on detrital zircon U–Pb source analysis, paleosalinity assessment, the sandstone modal composition, and other methods, we analyzed the P₁s source system and constructed a model of the sedimentary evolution. The findings reveal that the primary source of the clastic materials in the study area stems from a mixed-source within the recycling orogenic belt. During the deposition period, the Shanxi Formation developed two predominant material source systems: one in the north, primarily linked to the Paleo-Yinshan Fold Orogenic Belt (YFOB), and the other in the south, originating from the North Qinling Orogenic Belt (NQinOB). These two major source systems converged in the Yichuan–Fuxian area. From the early stages of the Shanxi Formation period (Shan1), there was a regional retreat of the sea in the area. The seawater receded in a southeastward direction, leading to a gradual reduction in the paleosalinity and Sr/Ba-ratio variability during the Shan1 period. The influence of the seawater diminished, transitioning into a deltaic depositional system. This shift towards a terrestrial lakeshore basin reached its full development during the Lower Xiashihezi period. This study concludes that the Shanxi Formation in this area represents the evolution of a deltaic depositional system originating from a shallow sea shelf. This evolution can be divided into three major stages: remnants of the shallow sea shelf, barrier island–lagoon–littoral, and deltaic deposition. Within this framework, the shoreline underwent frequent lateral migration, influencing a broad range of characteristics. In the vertical direction, numerous alternating sets of sandstone bodies and mudstone, shale, and coal beds formed, creating a significant relationship between coal hydrocarbon sources and reservoirs. This study also establishes the stratigraphic-sequence framework of the basin for this period. These results hold great importance for the expansion of natural gas exploration and development efforts. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environment and Geochemistry of Sediments, 2nd Edition)

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14 pages, 9117 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Modified Diglycolamide Resin: Characterization and Potential Application for Rare Earth Element Recovery

by Junnile L. Romero, Carlito Baltazar Tabelin, Ilhwan Park, Richard D. Alorro, Joshua B. Zoleta, Leaniel C. Silva, Takahiko Arima, Toshifumi Igarashi, Takunda Mhandu, Mayumi Ito, Steffen Happel, Naoki Hiroyoshi and Vannie Joy T. Resabal

Minerals 2023, 13(10), 1330; https://doi.org/10.3390/min13101330 - 14 Oct 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2566

Abstract

Rare earth elements (REEs) are crucial for green energy applications due to their unique properties, but their extraction poses sustainability challenges because the global supply of REEs is concentrated in a few countries, particularly China, which produces 70% of the world’s REEs. To [...] Read more.

Rare earth elements (REEs) are crucial for green energy applications due to their unique properties, but their extraction poses sustainability challenges because the global supply of REEs is concentrated in a few countries, particularly China, which produces 70% of the world’s REEs. To address this, the study investigated TK221, a modified extraction chromatographic resin featuring diglycolamide (DGA) and carbamoyl methyl phosphine oxide (CMPO), as a promising adsorbent for REE recovery. The elemental composition and functional groups of DGA and CMPO on the polystyrene-divinylbenzene (PS-DVB) support of TK221 were confirmed using scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM-EDX), attenuated total reflectance Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR), and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). The adsorption kinetics of neodymium (Nd), yttrium (Y), cerium (Ce), and erbium (Er) followed the pseudo-second-order kinetic model and Langmuir isotherm, indicating monolayer chemisorption. Furthermore, iron (Fe) adsorption reached apparent equilibrium after 360 min, with consistent Fe adsorption observed at both 360 min and 1440 min. The inclusion of Fe in the study is due to its common presence as an impurity in most REE leachate solutions. The Fe adsorption isotherm results are better fitted with the Langmuir isotherm, implying chemisorption. Maximum adsorption capacities (q_max) of the resin were determined as follows: Nd (45.3 mg/g), Ce (43.1 mg/g), Er (35.1 mg/g), Y (15.6 mg/g), and Fe (12.3 mg/g). ATR-FTIR analysis after adsorption suggested that both C=O and P=O bands shifted from 1679 cm⁻¹ to 1618 cm⁻¹ and 1107 cm⁻¹ to 1142 cm⁻¹ for Y, and from 1679 cm⁻¹ to 1607 cm⁻¹ and 1107 cm⁻¹ to 1135 cm⁻¹ for Ce, implying possible coordination with REEs. These results suggest that TK221 has a huge potential as an alternative adsorbent for REE recovery, thus contributing to sustainable REE supply diversification. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Precious and Critical Mineral Beneficiation and Extraction)

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12 pages, 1441 KiB

Open AccessArticle

New Approach for Direct Determination of Manganese Valence State in Ferromanganese Nodules by X-ray Fluorescence Spectrometry

by Victor M. Chubarov

Minerals 2023, 13(10), 1329; https://doi.org/10.3390/min13101329 - 14 Oct 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1238

Abstract

A new X-ray fluorescence technique is proposed as an alternative to the labor-consuming volumetric method for the estimation of manganese valence state in ferromanganese nodules. The approach is based on the measurement of the relative intensities of some X-ray fluorescence spectrum characteristic spectral [...] Read more.

A new X-ray fluorescence technique is proposed as an alternative to the labor-consuming volumetric method for the estimation of manganese valence state in ferromanganese nodules. The approach is based on the measurement of the relative intensities of some X-ray fluorescence spectrum characteristic spectral lines and satellites (MnKβ₅ and MnKβ′) preconditioned by electron transfer from the valence shell. Calibration curves were created using manganese oxide samples (MnO, Mn₂O₃, MnO₂) and 12 certified reference materials of ferromanganese nodules, cobalt-bearing ferromanganese crusts, and manganese ores with certified (or determined by approved methods) total and tetravalent manganese content. The presence of high iron content was taken into account. A set of oceanic ferromanganese nodules samples collected in the Magellan Seamounts (Pacific Ocean) were analyzed. Differences between the results of the X-ray fluorescence method and volumetric techniques for tetravalent manganese content were 4.9 rel.%, which is comparable with the accuracy of the volumetric technique (3.6 rel.%). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mineralogical and Geochemical Characteristics of Ferromanganese Nodules & Crusts: Implications for the Reconstruction of the Paleo-Ocean Environment)

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19 pages, 13616 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Genesis of the Graphite from the Tugeman Graphite Deposit, Xinjiang, China: Evidence for Carbon Isotope Refining by Fluids Associated with the Ductile Shear Zone

by Hang Li, Tao Hong, Shanke Liu, Qiang Ke, Zhiquan Yang, Yince Ma, Xuehai Wang, Lei Niu, Kai Kang and Xingwang Xu

Minerals 2023, 13(10), 1328; https://doi.org/10.3390/min13101328 - 13 Oct 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1730

Abstract

The Altun orogenic belt is situated along the northern boundary of the Tibetan Plateau. In this study, we present an analysis of the ore deposit, mineral composition, and carbon isotope signatures of the Tugeman graphite deposit within the Altun orogenic belt. The graphite [...] Read more.

The Altun orogenic belt is situated along the northern boundary of the Tibetan Plateau. In this study, we present an analysis of the ore deposit, mineral composition, and carbon isotope signatures of the Tugeman graphite deposit within the Altun orogenic belt. The graphite in the Tugeman graphite deposit occurs within graphite-bearing schists and marble. Graphite enrichment is observed in the ductile shear zone. The carbon isotope values of graphite range between −18.90‰ and −10.03‰ (with an average value of −12.70‰). These values differ significantly from those observed in organic matter and marine carbonates, suggesting the occurrence of a mixing process involving reduced carbon fluid derived from biological organic material during regional metamorphism as well as a potential influx of oxidized carbon fluid from external sources. In addition, the metamorphic temperature of Tugeman graphite calculated from Raman spectroscopy is between 494 °C and 570 °C, which indicates that the disordered material is transformed from greenschist-amphibolite facies metamorphism to moderate-crystalline graphite. Combining the geological and carbon isotope characteristics of the Tugeman graphite deposit, we argue that the Tugeman graphite deposit is a regional metamorphic graphite deposit of biogenic origin, and during the late stage of metamorphism, it underwent interaction with fluids. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Geology and Characterization of Natural Graphite Deposits and Other Critical Minerals)

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17 pages, 11117 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Research on the Harmless Treatment of Weak Muddy Intercalation in Red-Bedded Soft Rock via Microwave Energy

by Qijun Hu, Yucheng Gu, Zhicheng Liu, Junsen Zeng, Wenjin Zhang, Leping He and Muyao Li

Minerals 2023, 13(10), 1327; https://doi.org/10.3390/min13101327 - 13 Oct 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1130

Abstract

The WMI (weak muddy intercalation) is a typical weak structural surface in the red-bedded rock mass; ensuring slope stability by increasing the strength of the WMIs helps reduce project costs and carbon emissions. With the advantages of energy saving, high efficiency, and green, [...] Read more.

The WMI (weak muddy intercalation) is a typical weak structural surface in the red-bedded rock mass; ensuring slope stability by increasing the strength of the WMIs helps reduce project costs and carbon emissions. With the advantages of energy saving, high efficiency, and green, microwave technology has attracted scholars’ attention to geotechnical material property improvement. However, the mineral composition of the WMIs is complex and variable, and the applicability of microwave technology needs further evaluation. In this paper, the effects of microwave temperature and clay mineral types and content on the physical and mechanical properties of the WMIs were evaluated. The results show that microwave heating can substantially improve the uniaxial compressive strength of the WMIs, regardless of the types and content of clay minerals. Dehydration, dehydroxylation of clay minerals, and local melting of albite occurring in the specimens under microwave heating enhanced the strength of the soil particles and the interparticle joints. The strength increase ratios of the WMI specimens increased with the temperature increase. With the increase in clay mineral content, the strength increase ratio of kaolinite WMIs and illite WMIs decreased, while the strength increase ratios of montmorillonite WMIs increased. The present multiple regression analysis methods are used to establish the strength prediction models of the WMI microwave-reinforced specimens, which can guide the engineering application. Full article

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17 pages, 4342 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Reservoir Characteristics and Controlling Factors of Large-Scale Mono-Block Gas Field Developed in Delta-Front Sandstone—A Case Study from Zhongqiu 1 Gas Field in the Tarim Basin

by Songbai Zhu, Quanwei Du, Chen Dong, Xue Yan, Yong Wang, Yanli Wang, Zhuangsheng Wang and Xiaobing Lin

Minerals 2023, 13(10), 1326; https://doi.org/10.3390/min13101326 - 13 Oct 2023

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Abstract

Taking the Zhongqiu 1 Gas Field in the Tarim Basin as an example, the heterogeneity of large-scale mono-block gas fields and their primary controlling factors have been analyzed. Based on drilling core data, well log data, scanning electron microscopy, thin-section analysis, and mercury [...] Read more.

Taking the Zhongqiu 1 Gas Field in the Tarim Basin as an example, the heterogeneity of large-scale mono-block gas fields and their primary controlling factors have been analyzed. Based on drilling core data, well log data, scanning electron microscopy, thin-section analysis, and mercury injection experiments, combining sedimentological interpretation, research on the reservoir characteristics and variability was carried out. The results showed that: (1) The lithologic characteristics showed obvious variations among wells in the Zhongqiu 1 gas field. Specifically, the main lithology developed in the Zhongqiu 1 well is feldspar lithic sandstone, while the remaining wells predominantly consist of lithic feldspar sandstone. These differences in rock composition maturity reveal that a higher proportion of stable mineral components leads to poorer reservoir properties; (2) the main factors controlling oil and gas productivity include the variations in petrology, mineralogy, and diagenetic process characteristics. The high content of unstable mineral components and constructive diagenesis could increase reservoir porosity together. (3) Sedimentary facies of the Bashijiqike Formation in the Zhongqiu 1 Gas Field played a dominant role in the reservoir distribution. The division of sedimentary facies zones reflects variations in material composition and grain size, serving as the main material basis for reservoirs. Differences in mineral composition reflect the sedimentary environment of the reservoir. Additionally, mineral composition indicates the relationship between diagenetic processes and reservoir evolution. The high feldspar content in well ZQ1 corresponded to relatively favorable reservoir properties. The dominant feldspar type was plagioclase, suggesting that early-stage chemical weathering had undergone significant alteration. The above conclusions provided a microscopic perspective to explain the differences in oil and gas production capacity of large delta-front gas fields, serving as a geological basis for the exploration and exploitation of similar fields. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mineralogy, Geochemistry, and Sedimentary Geology of Lacustrine Basins)

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14 pages, 4249 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Microstructural Deformation and the Age of Monazite-(Ce) from Diatectite Granite in the Jarva-Varaka Structure (Kola Region, Russia)

by Tatiana Kaulina, Vladimir Shilovskih, Lyudmila Nerovich, Yevgeny Savchenko, Vladimir Bocharov, Lyudmila Lialina and Vadim Il’chenko

Minerals 2023, 13(10), 1325; https://doi.org/10.3390/min13101325 - 13 Oct 2023

Viewed by 1067

Abstract

Microstructural deformation and the age of monazite (Ce) from diatectite granite of the presumably impact Jarva-Varaka structure in the Kola Region (northeastern Fennoscandian Shield) are presented. Biotite diatectite granite forms lenses in the aluminous gneisses of the Kola group hosting the 2.5-Ga-layered Jarva-Varaka [...] Read more.

Microstructural deformation and the age of monazite (Ce) from diatectite granite of the presumably impact Jarva-Varaka structure in the Kola Region (northeastern Fennoscandian Shield) are presented. Biotite diatectite granite forms lenses in the aluminous gneisses of the Kola group hosting the 2.5-Ga-layered Jarva-Varaka Massif (JVM). A sample of biotite granite was collected northeast of the Jarva-Varaka Massif near the earlier described pseudotachylitic breccias. BSE images revealed primary domains in monazite grains with rhythmic euhedral zoning and secondary altered domains. Backscattered electron diffraction maps of monazite grains document the development of deformation twins along {100} and {001} and plastically deformed domains with a maximum misorientation of up to 10°. Newly formed areas of recrystallization (neoblasts) cut the twins and plastically deformed domains. Monazite yielded a U-Pb age of 2706 ± 10 Ma (ID-TIMS method), which defines the crystallization age of the host diatectite granite coeval to the 2.76–2.70 Ga metamorphism of the Kola gneisses. A similar age of 2734 ± 139 Ma (ThO2*–PbO isochron) was obtained for primary monazite domains by the chemical U-Th-total Pb isochron method (CHIME). Domains altered under late hydrothermal processes yield CHIME ages of 1796–1723 Ma. Monazite neoblastic domains are close to primary domains in chemical composition and yielded CHIME ages of 2550–2519 Ma, reflecting probably an influence of the JVM formation. The data obtained are insufficient to confirm the impact origin of the Jarva-Varaka structure, which requires further investigation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Crystallography and Physical Chemistry of Minerals & Nanominerals)

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17 pages, 21298 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Genetic Mechanism of Tabular-Shaped Orebody of the Hailijin Sandstone-Type Uranium Deposit in the Songliao Basin: Constraints on the Clay Mineralogy of Ore-Bearing Sandstone

by Mingming Tian, Ziying Li, Yunlong Zhang, Licheng Jia, Jun Ning, Jimu Li, Hanghang He and Guolong Tang

Minerals 2023, 13(10), 1324; https://doi.org/10.3390/min13101324 - 13 Oct 2023

Viewed by 1321

Abstract

The Hailijin (HLJ) sandstone-type uranium deposit was newly discovered in the southwestern Songliao Basin in recent years. Different from the roll-front orebody of the sandstone-type uranium deposits with (phreatic oxidation) interlayer redox origin (or phreatic oxidation), the orebody of the HLJ uranium deposit [...] Read more.

The Hailijin (HLJ) sandstone-type uranium deposit was newly discovered in the southwestern Songliao Basin in recent years. Different from the roll-front orebody of the sandstone-type uranium deposits with (phreatic oxidation) interlayer redox origin (or phreatic oxidation), the orebody of the HLJ uranium deposit is tabular-shaped and multi-stratiform. The kaolinite content in ore-controlling gray sandstones is significantly higher than that in oxidized sandstones, which have the highest kaolinite content in the less oxidized zone of sandstone-type uranium deposits in the basins of western China (such as Yili Basin and Turpan-Hami Basin). In order to identify the properties of ore-forming fluids and the genesis of the tabular-shaped orebody of the HLJ uranium deposit, trace element, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and uranium mineral electron probe (EPMA) analyses of different geochemical zone sandstones in ore-bearing strata were carried out. As a result, kaolinite, illite, and illite/smectite formation (I/S) appear to alternate with one another in ore-controlling gray sandstones, and the content of kaolinite is the highest in ores. SEM analysis also suggests that uranium minerals are commonly adsorbed on the surface of foliated and vermicular kaolinite or trapped within micropores of kaolinite. In this case, it is inferred that kaolinite in ore-controlling gray sandstones is of epigenetic origin, and the ore-bearing sandstones have undergone at least one transformation of acidic fluids. Combined with the regional paleoclimate, regional tectonics, and regional burial history, it is concluded that the acidic fluid originated from the uranium-rich source rocks of the Lower Cretaceous Jiufotang Formation, and the tabular-shaped orebody of the HLJ uranium deposit was formed by exudative metallogeny. When the uranium-rich acidic organic fluids exuded upward from deep levels along the faults to the target strata, the solubility of uranium and other polymetallic elements decreased because of the decrease in temperature and pressure, and uranium eventually precipitated and accumulated in sandstones with suitable permeability and porosity. However, it cannot be ruled out that the superimposition and transformation of uranium mineralization was caused by phreatic oxidation or local interlayer redox during the interval of exudative metallogeny. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Mineral Deposits)

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